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Factores cognitivos que afectan al desarrollo de la Destreza Lectora en estudiantes de
segundo año de inglés, educación superior, 2024.
Cognitive Factors that Affect the Development of Reading Skills among Sophomore
English Students in Higher Education, 2024.
1. Yuliana Vásquez-González; 2. Isabela Rodríguez-González; 3. Fátima Morán-Ojo; 4.
Rubén López-Fernández
1. Universidad de Panamá. Centro Regional Universitario de Coclé. Facultad de
Humanidades - Panamá. yuliana.vasquez@up.ac.pa, https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4087-3765
2. Universidad de Panamá. Centro Regional Universitario de Coclé. Facultad de
Humanidades - Panamá. isabela.rodriguezg@up.ac.pa, https://orcid.org/0009-0005-3893-
5519
3. Universidad de Panamá. Centro Regional Universitario de Coclé. Facultad de
Humanidades - Panamá. fatima.moran@up.ac.pa, https://orcid.org/0009-0005-3023-3213
4. Universidad de Panamá. Centro Regional Universitario de Coclé. Facultad de
Humanidades - Panamá. ruben.lopez@up.ac.pa, https://orcid.org/0009-0002-6381-7918
Recibido: 15/3/2024 - Aceptado: 1/8/2024
DOI https://doi.org/10.48204/j.guacamaya.v9n1.a5807
Resumen
La lectura no es simplemente una destreza fundamental; es la puerta de entrada a la
adquisición de conocimientos, al desarrollo del pensamiento crítico y al éxito académico y
profesional. En el ámbito de la educación superior, los estudiantes de inglés se encuentran
con barreras cognitivas que impiden el desarrollo de sus habilidades lectoras. Este estudio
pretende identificar los factores cognitivos que afectan al desarrollo de las destrezas
lectoras entre los estudiantes de inglés de segundo año de educación superior. Este estudio
observacional no experimental empleó una metodología de investigación mixta, utilizando
un enfoque transversal prospectivo para comprender los factores cognitivos que influyen en
el dominio de la lectura entre estos estudiantes. El marco teórico extraído de una revisión
bibliográfica destaca la importancia del vocabulario, la gramática, la fonología, la
descodificación y la memoria en la comprensión lectora. Además, sugiere la aplicación de
estrategias de lectura para reducir los déficits lectores. A través de la administración de un
cuestionario a 27 estudiantes de segundo año de inglés del Centro Regional Universitario
de Coclé, se recogieron y analizaron las percepciones respecto a diversos factores
pp. 81- 91
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cognitivos que afectan las habilidades lectoras. Los resultados revelaron que el vocabulario
aparece como el factor más influyente, con una mayoría significativa de acuerdo con su
importancia. Además, la fonología, la memoria y la gramática se identificaron como
factores que contribuyen significativamente al desarrollo de las habilidades lectoras.
Curiosamente, casi la mitad de los participantes consideraron que las destrezas de
descodificación eran neutrales. Estos resultados subrayan el papel fundamental del
vocabulario y la fonología en la formación de la competencia lectora entre los estudiantes
de segundo curso de inglés, al tiempo que destacan la importancia de abordar los problemas
de memoria. El estudio sugiere la aplicación de estrategias específicas dirigidas a mejorar
las destrezas lectoras con el fin de reducir el impacto negativo de estos factores cognitivos
y apoyar eficazmente el progreso académico de los estudiantes.
Palabras clave: destreza lectora, factores cognitivos, estrategias de lectura.
Abstract
Reading is not merely a fundamental skill; it is the gateway to knowledge acquisition,
critical thinking development, and academic and professional success. In the realm of
higher education, English students encounter cognitive barriers that impede the
development of their reading skills. This study aimed to identify the cognitive factors that
affect the development of reading skills among sophomore English students in higher
education. This non-experimental observational study employed a mixed research
methodology, utilizing a prospective transversal approach to understand the cognitive
factors influencing reading proficiency among these students. The theoretical framework
drawn from a literature review highlights the importance of vocabulary, grammar,
phonology, decoding, and working memory in reading comprehension. In addition, it
suggests the implementation of reading strategies to reduce reading deficits. Through the
administration of a questionnaire to 27 sophomore English students at Cocle University
Regional Center, perceptions regarding various cognitive factors affecting reading abilities
were gathered and analyzed. Results revealed that vocabulary emerged as the most
influential cognitive factor, with a significant majority strongly agreeing on its importance.
Additionally, phonology, working memory, and grammar were identified as significant
contributors to reading skills development. Interestingly, decoding skills were viewed
neutrally by nearly half of the participants. These findings underscore the critical role of
vocabulary and phonology in shaping reading proficiency among sophomore English
students, while also emphasizing the importance of addressing working memory concerns.
The study suggests the implementation of specific strategies aimed at improving reading
skills to reduce the negative impact of these cognitive factors and effectively support
students' academic progress.
Keywords: reading skills, cognitive factors, reading strategies.
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cognitivos que afectan las habilidades lectoras. Los resultados revelaron que el vocabulario
aparece como el factor más influyente, con una mayoría significativa de acuerdo con su
importancia. Además, la fonología, la memoria y la gramática se identificaron como
factores que contribuyen significativamente al desarrollo de las habilidades lectoras.
Curiosamente, casi la mitad de los participantes consideraron que las destrezas de
descodificación eran neutrales. Estos resultados subrayan el papel fundamental del
vocabulario y la fonología en la formación de la competencia lectora entre los estudiantes
de segundo curso de inglés, al tiempo que destacan la importancia de abordar los problemas
de memoria. El estudio sugiere la aplicación de estrategias específicas dirigidas a mejorar
las destrezas lectoras con el fin de reducir el impacto negativo de estos factores cognitivos
y apoyar eficazmente el progreso académico de los estudiantes.
Palabras clave: destreza lectora, factores cognitivos, estrategias de lectura.
Abstract
Reading is not merely a fundamental skill; it is the gateway to knowledge acquisition,
critical thinking development, and academic and professional success. In the realm of
higher education, English students encounter cognitive barriers that impede the
development of their reading skills. This study aimed to identify the cognitive factors that
affect the development of reading skills among sophomore English students in higher
education. This non-experimental observational study employed a mixed research
methodology, utilizing a prospective transversal approach to understand the cognitive
factors influencing reading proficiency among these students. The theoretical framework
drawn from a literature review highlights the importance of vocabulary, grammar,
phonology, decoding, and working memory in reading comprehension. In addition, it
suggests the implementation of reading strategies to reduce reading deficits. Through the
administration of a questionnaire to 27 sophomore English students at Cocle University
Regional Center, perceptions regarding various cognitive factors affecting reading abilities
were gathered and analyzed. Results revealed that vocabulary emerged as the most
influential cognitive factor, with a significant majority strongly agreeing on its importance.
Additionally, phonology, working memory, and grammar were identified as significant
contributors to reading skills development. Interestingly, decoding skills were viewed
neutrally by nearly half of the participants. These findings underscore the critical role of
vocabulary and phonology in shaping reading proficiency among sophomore English
students, while also emphasizing the importance of addressing working memory concerns.
The study suggests the implementation of specific strategies aimed at improving reading
skills to reduce the negative impact of these cognitive factors and effectively support
students' academic progress.
Keywords: reading skills, cognitive factors, reading strategies.
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Introduction
Reading ability is a crucial communicative process that stands as the cornerstone of
language proficiency, particularly in academic and professional contexts (Iruvuri, 2020, p.
1). According to Bharuthram (2017), students “… enter higher education with the literacies
of schooling, but not with a well-developed literacy repertoire for higher education” (p. 59).
A problem is evident in higher education, particularly among sophomore English students.
Despite efforts to foster good reading skills, students encounter various cognitive barriers.
“Vocabulary is one viewpoint that should be learned and dominated by students because
vocabulary is related to the skills contained in English” (Rahmah et al., 2023, p. 37). Al-
Majdawi & Jabbar (2017) state that “three processes (phonological, syntactic, and working
memory) show a significant increase in development during the period of rapid reading
skill acquisition” (p. 1). In addition, “The ability to decode words is the most critical skill
for students to succeed with reading comprehension” (Guenin, 2018, p. 8). Each cognitive
factor negatively impacts the academic progress of English Sophomore students.
This study suggests two hypotheses. The first one states that the three main factors that
strongly affect reading skills are vocabulary, grammar, and phonology and the second one
is the opposite. This study aims to identify the cognitive factors that affect the development
of reading skills among sophomore English students in higher education according to the
sophomore students´ perceptions.
Having a strong reading proficiency impacts the development of other language skills and
academic and professional growth. However, “during reading comprehension, several
cognitive processes are involved” (Al-Jarrah1 & Ismail, 2018, p. 34). Many studies suggest
that vocabulary, grammar, phonology, decoding, and working memory are the main
cognitive factors affecting reading ability. Students highlighted the importance of a strong
vocabulary for reading English passages, stating that without word recognition, the
enjoyment of reading is compromised (Naveed et al., 2022, p. 1871). According to Zheng
et al. (2023), higher reading stages match more complicated requirements of text reading
comprehension and proficiency in grammatical knowledge application (p. 2). Additionally,
phonology is also important in reading development because it emphasizes the crucial skill
of associating sounds with letters (Al-Majdawi & Jabbar, 2022, p. 233).
Furthermore, Guenin (2018) states that decoding skills influence comprehension reading
development by helping the students understand the meaning of the text and read faster at
the same time (p. 10-11). Finally, Morgan (2019) claims that students who struggle with
working memory may have a hard time remembering details or facts in their textbooks
because working memory is important for following the sequence of what is being read.
The effects of the cognitive factors studied can be prevented or reduced through various
reading strategies. Thuy (2018) identifies reading strategies commonly employed by ESL
students like activating prior knowledge, delving into the information beyond surface-level
data, utilizing sensory experiences to enhance understanding and retention, engaging in
logical reasoning processes, and adopting a broad conceptualization approach, among
others (p. 120-121). Developing effective reading strategies is thus essential for learners, as
they enable efficient text processing and deeper comprehension of the material (Duc, &
Lan, 2023, p. 894).
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Introduction
Reading ability is a crucial communicative process that stands as the cornerstone of
language proficiency, particularly in academic and professional contexts (Iruvuri, 2020, p.
1). According to Bharuthram (2017), students “… enter higher education with the literacies
of schooling, but not with a well-developed literacy repertoire for higher education” (p. 59).
A problem is evident in higher education, particularly among sophomore English students.
Despite efforts to foster good reading skills, students encounter various cognitive barriers.
“Vocabulary is one viewpoint that should be learned and dominated by students because
vocabulary is related to the skills contained in English” (Rahmah et al., 2023, p. 37). Al-
Majdawi & Jabbar (2017) state that “three processes (phonological, syntactic, and working
memory) show a significant increase in development during the period of rapid reading
skill acquisition” (p. 1). In addition, “The ability to decode words is the most critical skill
for students to succeed with reading comprehension” (Guenin, 2018, p. 8). Each cognitive
factor negatively impacts the academic progress of English Sophomore students.
This study suggests two hypotheses. The first one states that the three main factors that
strongly affect reading skills are vocabulary, grammar, and phonology and the second one
is the opposite. This study aims to identify the cognitive factors that affect the development
of reading skills among sophomore English students in higher education according to the
sophomore students´ perceptions.
Having a strong reading proficiency impacts the development of other language skills and
academic and professional growth. However, “during reading comprehension, several
cognitive processes are involved” (Al-Jarrah1 & Ismail, 2018, p. 34). Many studies suggest
that vocabulary, grammar, phonology, decoding, and working memory are the main
cognitive factors affecting reading ability. Students highlighted the importance of a strong
vocabulary for reading English passages, stating that without word recognition, the
enjoyment of reading is compromised (Naveed et al., 2022, p. 1871). According to Zheng
et al. (2023), higher reading stages match more complicated requirements of text reading
comprehension and proficiency in grammatical knowledge application (p. 2). Additionally,
phonology is also important in reading development because it emphasizes the crucial skill
of associating sounds with letters (Al-Majdawi & Jabbar, 2022, p. 233).
Furthermore, Guenin (2018) states that decoding skills influence comprehension reading
development by helping the students understand the meaning of the text and read faster at
the same time (p. 10-11). Finally, Morgan (2019) claims that students who struggle with
working memory may have a hard time remembering details or facts in their textbooks
because working memory is important for following the sequence of what is being read.
The effects of the cognitive factors studied can be prevented or reduced through various
reading strategies. Thuy (2018) identifies reading strategies commonly employed by ESL
students like activating prior knowledge, delving into the information beyond surface-level
data, utilizing sensory experiences to enhance understanding and retention, engaging in
logical reasoning processes, and adopting a broad conceptualization approach, among
others (p. 120-121). Developing effective reading strategies is thus essential for learners, as
they enable efficient text processing and deeper comprehension of the material (Duc, &
Lan, 2023, p. 894).
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Methods and Materials
Scope
The methodology employed in this study integrated a mixed research approach with
observational and prospective elements, guided by a theoretical framework underlying the
cognitive factors that influence reading proficiency among English sophomores in higher
education. The theoretical framework encompassed concepts such as vocabulary, grammar,
phonology, decoding, and working memory, which have been identified in previous
research as significant contributors to the development of reading skills.
Population
The instrument was administered to a sample of 27 sophomore English students at Cocle
University Regional Center, employing a transversal approach to obtain a snapshot of their
current perceptions. Regarding the population, 70.4% of the participants were female, while
29.6% were males. The majority were between the ages of 18 and 24 years.
Instrument
The survey included a Likert scale, which offered participants a range of options to indicate
how much they agreed with statements about the importance of different cognitive skills for
reading. These options ranged from strongly agreeing to strongly disagreeing. According to
Bhandari & Nikolopoulou (2020), Likert scales offer a variety of response choices,
allowing participants to express their opinions or feelings about a topic with greater
subtlety. The questionnaire was elaborated in Google Forms. Google Forms' popularity in
online survey research stems from its convenient features, including accessibility from any
device at any time, and its free, unlimited use. (Vasantha & Harinarayana, 2016, p. 5). It
facilitated to obtain the specific data to study.
Data analysis
Descriptive and content analytical methods were then used to analyze the data collected,
providing information on the nuanced relationships between these cognitive factors and
reading proficiency. This methodological framework facilitated a comprehensive
examination of the challenges faced by students in this academic context and informed
strategies to enhance the development of reading skills effectively.
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
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Methods and Materials
Scope
The methodology employed in this study integrated a mixed research approach with
observational and prospective elements, guided by a theoretical framework underlying the
cognitive factors that influence reading proficiency among English sophomores in higher
education. The theoretical framework encompassed concepts such as vocabulary, grammar,
phonology, decoding, and working memory, which have been identified in previous
research as significant contributors to the development of reading skills.
Population
The instrument was administered to a sample of 27 sophomore English students at Cocle
University Regional Center, employing a transversal approach to obtain a snapshot of their
current perceptions. Regarding the population, 70.4% of the participants were female, while
29.6% were males. The majority were between the ages of 18 and 24 years.
Instrument
The survey included a Likert scale, which offered participants a range of options to indicate
how much they agreed with statements about the importance of different cognitive skills for
reading. These options ranged from strongly agreeing to strongly disagreeing. According to
Bhandari & Nikolopoulou (2020), Likert scales offer a variety of response choices,
allowing participants to express their opinions or feelings about a topic with greater
subtlety. The questionnaire was elaborated in Google Forms. Google Forms' popularity in
online survey research stems from its convenient features, including accessibility from any
device at any time, and its free, unlimited use. (Vasantha & Harinarayana, 2016, p. 5). It
facilitated to obtain the specific data to study.
Data analysis
Descriptive and content analytical methods were then used to analyze the data collected,
providing information on the nuanced relationships between these cognitive factors and
reading proficiency. This methodological framework facilitated a comprehensive
examination of the challenges faced by students in this academic context and informed
strategies to enhance the development of reading skills effectively.
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Results and Discussion
Table 1.
Cognitive Factors that Affect Reading Skills According to the Sophomore English Students
Perceptions.
Factors Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Vocabulary 63,0% 25,9% 0,0% 0,0% 11,1%
Grammar 11,1% 51,9% 22,2% 7,4% 7,4%
Phonology 33,3% 48,1% 18,5% 0,0% 0,0%
Decoding 18,5% 33,3% 48,1% 0,0% 0,0%
Working
Memory
18,5% 51,9% 22,2% 7,4% 0,0%
Note. The table shows the perceptions of sophomore English students at Cocle University Regional Center on how different
cognitive factors affect their reading skills.
Figure 1.
Vocabulary Knowledge Influences the Ability to Understand Written Texts in Sophomore
Students.
Note. The image shows the perceptions of sophomore English students at Cocle University Regional Center about how
vocabulary knowledge influences their skills development to understand written text.
Vocabulary received the highest endorsement, with a whopping 63% of students strongly
agreeing that vocabulary significantly impacts reading skills. Only a small percentage
(11.1%) disagreed with this statement. This suggests that the students recognize the
importance of a strong vocabulary for comprehension. These results are consistent with
research on the importance of vocabulary in reading. Vocabulary knowledge is a
fundamental factor in developing reading skills in English. Sophomores should spend time
learning and practicing new vocabulary to improve their reading comprehension.
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Results and Discussion
Table 1.
Cognitive Factors that Affect Reading Skills According to the Sophomore English Students
Perceptions.
Factors Strongly Agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree
Vocabulary 63,0% 25,9% 0,0% 0,0% 11,1%
Grammar 11,1% 51,9% 22,2% 7,4% 7,4%
Phonology 33,3% 48,1% 18,5% 0,0% 0,0%
Decoding 18,5% 33,3% 48,1% 0,0% 0,0%
Working
Memory
18,5% 51,9% 22,2% 7,4% 0,0%
Note. The table shows the perceptions of sophomore English students at Cocle University Regional Center on how different
cognitive factors affect their reading skills.
Figure 1.
Vocabulary Knowledge Influences the Ability to Understand Written Texts in Sophomore
Students.
Note. The image shows the perceptions of sophomore English students at Cocle University Regional Center about how
vocabulary knowledge influences their skills development to understand written text.
Vocabulary received the highest endorsement, with a whopping 63% of students strongly
agreeing that vocabulary significantly impacts reading skills. Only a small percentage
(11.1%) disagreed with this statement. This suggests that the students recognize the
importance of a strong vocabulary for comprehension. These results are consistent with
research on the importance of vocabulary in reading. Vocabulary knowledge is a
fundamental factor in developing reading skills in English. Sophomores should spend time
learning and practicing new vocabulary to improve their reading comprehension.
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Figure 2.
Grammatical Structures Affect the Ability to Understand Meaning from Written Materials in
Sophomore Students.
Note. The image shows the perceptions of sophomore English students at Cocle University Regional Center about how
grammatical structures affect their ability to understand meaning from written materials.
Over half (51.9%) of the students agreed more than strongly agreeing (11.1%) that
grammatical structures have an impact on reading comprehension. A considerable
percentage (22.2%) do not have a clear opinion on the influence of grammar on reading
comprehension. A small percentage (14.8%) disagrees with the influence of grammar on
reading comprehension. While the majority of students recognize the importance of
grammar in reading comprehension, a significant percentage is still unsure of its impact.
This indicates an awareness of the role of grammar, but perhaps not everyone feels it
strongly affects them. Sophomore students need to understand how grammar works to
decode written texts in English.
Figure 3.
Phonological Awareness plays a key role in the Development of Reading Skills in Sophomore
Students.
Note. The image shows the perceptions of sophomore English students at Cocle University Regional Center about how
phonological awareness plays a key role in the development of their reading skills.
The majority of students (81.4%) recognize that phonological awareness is important for
the development of reading skills in English. A significant percentage (18.5%) does not
have a clear opinion on the influence of phonological awareness on reading. There are no
students who disagree with the importance of phonological awareness. This factor, which is
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Figure 2.
Grammatical Structures Affect the Ability to Understand Meaning from Written Materials in
Sophomore Students.
Note. The image shows the perceptions of sophomore English students at Cocle University Regional Center about how
grammatical structures affect their ability to understand meaning from written materials.
Over half (51.9%) of the students agreed more than strongly agreeing (11.1%) that
grammatical structures have an impact on reading comprehension. A considerable
percentage (22.2%) do not have a clear opinion on the influence of grammar on reading
comprehension. A small percentage (14.8%) disagrees with the influence of grammar on
reading comprehension. While the majority of students recognize the importance of
grammar in reading comprehension, a significant percentage is still unsure of its impact.
This indicates an awareness of the role of grammar, but perhaps not everyone feels it
strongly affects them. Sophomore students need to understand how grammar works to
decode written texts in English.
Figure 3.
Phonological Awareness plays a key role in the Development of Reading Skills in Sophomore
Students.
Note. The image shows the perceptions of sophomore English students at Cocle University Regional Center about how
phonological awareness plays a key role in the development of their reading skills.
The majority of students (81.4%) recognize that phonological awareness is important for
the development of reading skills in English. A significant percentage (18.5%) does not
have a clear opinion on the influence of phonological awareness on reading. There are no
students who disagree with the importance of phonological awareness. This factor, which is
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foundational for reading development, received less emphasis than vocabulary. This might
suggest that the students view these areas as more automatic or less relevant to their current
reading level.
Phonological awareness is an important factor in the development of reading skills in
English. Sophomore students should engage themselves in activities that strengthen their
phonological awareness to improve their reading skills.
Figure 4.
Decoding Skills Influence Competence in Reading Comprehension in Sophomore Students.
Note. The image shows the perceptions of sophomore English students at Cocle University Regional Center about how
decoding skills influence their competence in reading comprehension.
This factor also received less emphasis than vocabulary. Around (18.5%) of students
strongly agreed on their importance, and around (33.3%) agreed that decoding skills
influence reading comprehension. Almost half of the students (48.1%) do not have a clear
opinion on the influence of decoding on reading comprehension. No student disagrees or
strongly disagrees with the importance of decoding. These results suggest that sophomore
students generally understand the importance of decoding in reading. However, a
considerable percentage of students are not sure how decoding affects their ability to
comprehend texts.
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foundational for reading development, received less emphasis than vocabulary. This might
suggest that the students view these areas as more automatic or less relevant to their current
reading level.
Phonological awareness is an important factor in the development of reading skills in
English. Sophomore students should engage themselves in activities that strengthen their
phonological awareness to improve their reading skills.
Figure 4.
Decoding Skills Influence Competence in Reading Comprehension in Sophomore Students.
Note. The image shows the perceptions of sophomore English students at Cocle University Regional Center about how
decoding skills influence their competence in reading comprehension.
This factor also received less emphasis than vocabulary. Around (18.5%) of students
strongly agreed on their importance, and around (33.3%) agreed that decoding skills
influence reading comprehension. Almost half of the students (48.1%) do not have a clear
opinion on the influence of decoding on reading comprehension. No student disagrees or
strongly disagrees with the importance of decoding. These results suggest that sophomore
students generally understand the importance of decoding in reading. However, a
considerable percentage of students are not sure how decoding affects their ability to
comprehend texts.
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Figure 5.
Working Memory is a Critical Determinant of Reading Abilities in Sophomore Students.
Note. The image shows the perceptions of sophomore English students at Cocle University Regional Center about how
working memory is a critical determinant of reading abilities.
The majority of students (18.5%) strongly agreed and (51.9%) agreed suggesting that they
recognize that working memory plays an important role in reading. A considerable
percentage (22.2%) do not have a clear opinion about the influence of working memory on
reading. Only a small percentage (7.4%) disagrees with the importance of working memory
for reading.
Despite the 5 cognitive factors analyzed above, other types of factors also affect English
sophomore students’ reading skills according to their perceptions. Students would improve
their reading literacy by discovering and understanding those factors that greatly influence
reading literacy (Líu et al., 2022). Sophomores shared that they also face factors such as the
reading environment, parental or educational support, and how critical thinking and
classroom distractions impact comprehension. They additionally added that it affects the
encouragement to foster deep reading.
Furthermore, low pronunciation confidence and a lack of background knowledge of the
language further hinder comprehension. Besides, the environment itself can influence
comprehension. Also, students highlighted the influence of the environment, background
knowledge, and language differences on comprehension. According to the sophomore’s
opinion, another factor is instructional, within are: teaching methods, students’ learning
styles, and weaknesses. Apart from the five factors analyzed before, sophomore students
are concerned about other factors that are affecting their development of the reading
English process, known as non-cognitive factors. “Non-cognitive factors are qualities other
than content knowledge and academic skills that also influence learning” (Heydebreck,
2019). Hence, this passage delves into additional factors categorized as supportive,
cognitive, emotional, cultural, instructional, and individual.
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Figure 5.
Working Memory is a Critical Determinant of Reading Abilities in Sophomore Students.
Note. The image shows the perceptions of sophomore English students at Cocle University Regional Center about how
working memory is a critical determinant of reading abilities.
The majority of students (18.5%) strongly agreed and (51.9%) agreed suggesting that they
recognize that working memory plays an important role in reading. A considerable
percentage (22.2%) do not have a clear opinion about the influence of working memory on
reading. Only a small percentage (7.4%) disagrees with the importance of working memory
for reading.
Despite the 5 cognitive factors analyzed above, other types of factors also affect English
sophomore students’ reading skills according to their perceptions. Students would improve
their reading literacy by discovering and understanding those factors that greatly influence
reading literacy (Líu et al., 2022). Sophomores shared that they also face factors such as the
reading environment, parental or educational support, and how critical thinking and
classroom distractions impact comprehension. They additionally added that it affects the
encouragement to foster deep reading.
Furthermore, low pronunciation confidence and a lack of background knowledge of the
language further hinder comprehension. Besides, the environment itself can influence
comprehension. Also, students highlighted the influence of the environment, background
knowledge, and language differences on comprehension. According to the sophomore’s
opinion, another factor is instructional, within are: teaching methods, students’ learning
styles, and weaknesses. Apart from the five factors analyzed before, sophomore students
are concerned about other factors that are affecting their development of the reading
English process, known as non-cognitive factors. “Non-cognitive factors are qualities other
than content knowledge and academic skills that also influence learning” (Heydebreck,
2019). Hence, this passage delves into additional factors categorized as supportive,
cognitive, emotional, cultural, instructional, and individual.
89
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ya
Conclusion
The main objective of this study was to identify the cognitive factors affecting the reading
skills development of sophomore English students in higher education. The findings
demonstrated that vocabulary knowledge is the most prominent factor, followed by
phonological awareness and working memory, while others are concerned that working
memory and grammar affect their ability to understand meanings from written materials.
Therefore, the stated hypothesis determined that vocabulary and phonics are the main
factors affecting reading development. However, working memory was identified as a more
determining factor than phonology. Interestingly, students expressed and acknowledged a
more neutral view on decoding skills, suggesting a developing understanding of reading.
The study findings align with previous researchers like (Naveed et al., 2022) by
emphasizing the impact of vocabulary knowledge on reading comprehension. Besides, the
process of comprehending texts is usually a struggle for learners. Therefore, it can be stated
that certain factors have an impact on their reading comprehension process (Gilakjani &
Sabouri, 2016, p. 180).
Despite their concerns about the five cognitive factors interpreted above, sophomores
recognized other categories of factors that are influencing their development of reading
skills, known as non-cognitive factors. “Reading comprehension is a complex process that
involves components, processes, and factors with the aim of finding better ways of
improving it among learners” (Gilakjani & Sabouri, 2016, p. 180). Thus, students
highlighted the need for more interventions to help them improve their progress in reading
skills, as students recognize their challenges but require greater support because they have
not yet managed to find more effective solutions.
This research provides valuable information for both teachers and students. Teachers can
build on these findings to prioritize vocabulary development and integrate strategies that
reinforce phonological awareness, working memory, decoding, and grammatical skills into
their teaching to foster their reading skills. Understanding how different thinking skills
affect reading can be a game-changer for students. By recognizing these factors, they can
conquer challenges, find the right kind of help, and ultimately become stronger readers,
which will boost their success in their studies. The implementation of reading strategies is
important to reduce the negative effects of all cognitive factors. It is suggested for further
research to see if there is a correlation between their perceptions and their current reading
comprehension.
Bibliographic references
Al-Jarrah, H. & Nur Ismail, S. B., (2018). Reading Comprehension Difficulties Among
EFL Learners in Higher Learning Institutions. International Journal of English
Linguistics, 8(7), pp. 32-41. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v8n7p32
AI-Majdawi, A. M., & Jabbar, F. R. (2022). The Cognitive Process of Reading Skills.
International Journal of Education Humanities and Social Science, 5(4), pp. 231-
240. https://ijehss.com/view4.php?issue=4
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacama
ya
Conclusion
The main objective of this study was to identify the cognitive factors affecting the reading
skills development of sophomore English students in higher education. The findings
demonstrated that vocabulary knowledge is the most prominent factor, followed by
phonological awareness and working memory, while others are concerned that working
memory and grammar affect their ability to understand meanings from written materials.
Therefore, the stated hypothesis determined that vocabulary and phonics are the main
factors affecting reading development. However, working memory was identified as a more
determining factor than phonology. Interestingly, students expressed and acknowledged a
more neutral view on decoding skills, suggesting a developing understanding of reading.
The study findings align with previous researchers like (Naveed et al., 2022) by
emphasizing the impact of vocabulary knowledge on reading comprehension. Besides, the
process of comprehending texts is usually a struggle for learners. Therefore, it can be stated
that certain factors have an impact on their reading comprehension process (Gilakjani &
Sabouri, 2016, p. 180).
Despite their concerns about the five cognitive factors interpreted above, sophomores
recognized other categories of factors that are influencing their development of reading
skills, known as non-cognitive factors. “Reading comprehension is a complex process that
involves components, processes, and factors with the aim of finding better ways of
improving it among learners” (Gilakjani & Sabouri, 2016, p. 180). Thus, students
highlighted the need for more interventions to help them improve their progress in reading
skills, as students recognize their challenges but require greater support because they have
not yet managed to find more effective solutions.
This research provides valuable information for both teachers and students. Teachers can
build on these findings to prioritize vocabulary development and integrate strategies that
reinforce phonological awareness, working memory, decoding, and grammatical skills into
their teaching to foster their reading skills. Understanding how different thinking skills
affect reading can be a game-changer for students. By recognizing these factors, they can
conquer challenges, find the right kind of help, and ultimately become stronger readers,
which will boost their success in their studies. The implementation of reading strategies is
important to reduce the negative effects of all cognitive factors. It is suggested for further
research to see if there is a correlation between their perceptions and their current reading
comprehension.
Bibliographic references
Al-Jarrah, H. & Nur Ismail, S. B., (2018). Reading Comprehension Difficulties Among
EFL Learners in Higher Learning Institutions. International Journal of English
Linguistics, 8(7), pp. 32-41. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v8n7p32
AI-Majdawi, A. M., & Jabbar, F. R. (2022). The Cognitive Process of Reading Skills.
International Journal of Education Humanities and Social Science, 5(4), pp. 231-
240. https://ijehss.com/view4.php?issue=4
90
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacama
ya
Bhandari, P., & Nikolopoulou, K. (2020, July 3). What Is a Likert Scale?: Guide &
Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved March 06, 2024.
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/likert-scale/
Bharuthram, S. (2017). The Reading Habits and Practices of Undergraduate Students at a
Higher Education Institution in South Africa: a Case Study. The Independent
Journal of Teaching and Learning, 12(1), pp. 50-62.
https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/EJC-77dc5a5d0
Duc, P. D. T. N., & Lan, M. N. T. (2023). Reading Comprehension Difficulties Among
English Majored Sophomores at A University in Vietnam. International Journal of
Scientific Research in Science and Technology, 10(2), pp. 890-905.
https://doi.org/10.32628/IJSRST523102149
Gilakjani, A. P., & Sabouri, N. B. (2016). A study of factors affecting EFL learners’
reading comprehension skill and the Strategies for improvement. International
Journal of English Linguistics, 6(5).
https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v6n5p180
Guenin, L. J. (2018). Decoding Skills: How These Skills are the Answer to the Reading
Problem that Affects Most Students. Learning to teach Language, Arts,
Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies Through Research and Practice, 6(1), pp.
8-13. https://openjournals.utoledo.edu/index.php/learningtoteach/article/view/221
Iruvuri, S. (2020). Strategies: To Improve Effective Reading Skills. Language in India,
20(6), pp. 1-6.
http://www.languageinindia.com/june2020/v20i6june2020.pdf#page=4
Líu, H., Chen, X., & Liu, H. (2022). Factors influencing secondary school students’ reading
literacy: An analysis based on XGBoost and SHAP methods. Frontiers in
Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.948612
Morgan, D. (2020, October 14). Why Working Memory Matters for Reading-Helping
Children to Read. Helping Children to Read.
https://helpingchildrentoread.com/articles/why-working-memory-matters-for-
reading/
Naveed, S., Hyder, R. S., & Kadir, Z. A., (2022). Factors Affecting English Reading Skills
at Collegiate Level in Pakistan. Journal of Positive School Psychology, 6(11), pp.
1867-1871. https://journalppw.com/index.php/jpsp/article/view/14319
Heydebreck, P. (2019, December 20). Non-cognitive factors influence learning
performance | Trickle.app. https://trickle.app/drip/20986-non-cognitive-factors-
influence-learning-performance/
Rahmah, N., Tahir, M., & Talib, A. (2023). The Effect of Vocabulary Mastery on Students’
Reading Comprehension. International Journal of Business, English, and
Communication (IJoBEC), 1(1), pp. 36-44.
https://journal.unm.ac.id/index.php/ijobec/index
Thuy, N. T. B. (2018). Reading Strategies Used by Vietnamese EFL and ESL University
Students. VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, 34(2), pp. 111-124.
https://doi.org/10.25073/2525-2445/vnufs.4250
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacama
ya
Bhandari, P., & Nikolopoulou, K. (2020, July 3). What Is a Likert Scale?: Guide &
Examples. Scribbr. Retrieved March 06, 2024.
https://www.scribbr.com/methodology/likert-scale/
Bharuthram, S. (2017). The Reading Habits and Practices of Undergraduate Students at a
Higher Education Institution in South Africa: a Case Study. The Independent
Journal of Teaching and Learning, 12(1), pp. 50-62.
https://journals.co.za/doi/abs/10.10520/EJC-77dc5a5d0
Duc, P. D. T. N., & Lan, M. N. T. (2023). Reading Comprehension Difficulties Among
English Majored Sophomores at A University in Vietnam. International Journal of
Scientific Research in Science and Technology, 10(2), pp. 890-905.
https://doi.org/10.32628/IJSRST523102149
Gilakjani, A. P., & Sabouri, N. B. (2016). A study of factors affecting EFL learners’
reading comprehension skill and the Strategies for improvement. International
Journal of English Linguistics, 6(5).
https://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v6n5p180
Guenin, L. J. (2018). Decoding Skills: How These Skills are the Answer to the Reading
Problem that Affects Most Students. Learning to teach Language, Arts,
Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies Through Research and Practice, 6(1), pp.
8-13. https://openjournals.utoledo.edu/index.php/learningtoteach/article/view/221
Iruvuri, S. (2020). Strategies: To Improve Effective Reading Skills. Language in India,
20(6), pp. 1-6.
http://www.languageinindia.com/june2020/v20i6june2020.pdf#page=4
Líu, H., Chen, X., & Liu, H. (2022). Factors influencing secondary school students’ reading
literacy: An analysis based on XGBoost and SHAP methods. Frontiers in
Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.948612
Morgan, D. (2020, October 14). Why Working Memory Matters for Reading-Helping
Children to Read. Helping Children to Read.
https://helpingchildrentoread.com/articles/why-working-memory-matters-for-
reading/
Naveed, S., Hyder, R. S., & Kadir, Z. A., (2022). Factors Affecting English Reading Skills
at Collegiate Level in Pakistan. Journal of Positive School Psychology, 6(11), pp.
1867-1871. https://journalppw.com/index.php/jpsp/article/view/14319
Heydebreck, P. (2019, December 20). Non-cognitive factors influence learning
performance | Trickle.app. https://trickle.app/drip/20986-non-cognitive-factors-
influence-learning-performance/
Rahmah, N., Tahir, M., & Talib, A. (2023). The Effect of Vocabulary Mastery on Students’
Reading Comprehension. International Journal of Business, English, and
Communication (IJoBEC), 1(1), pp. 36-44.
https://journal.unm.ac.id/index.php/ijobec/index
Thuy, N. T. B. (2018). Reading Strategies Used by Vietnamese EFL and ESL University
Students. VNU Journal of Foreign Studies, 34(2), pp. 111-124.
https://doi.org/10.25073/2525-2445/vnufs.4250
91
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacama
ya
Vasantha Raju N., & Harinarayana, N.S. (2016, January). Online survey tools: A case study
of Google Forms. Paper presented at the National Conference on "Scientific,
Computational & Information Research Trends in Engineering, GSSS-IETW,
Mysore.
https://www.academia.edu/download/94296825/onlinesurveytoolsgoogle_formsnvn
sh22_160202065410.pdf
Zheng, H., Miao, X., Dong, Y., & Yuan, D. (2023). The Relationship Between
Grammatical Knowledge and Reading Comprehension: A Meta-Analysis. Frontiers
in Psychology. Front Psychol, 14(1098568), pp. 1-13.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1098568
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacama
ya
Vasantha Raju N., & Harinarayana, N.S. (2016, January). Online survey tools: A case study
of Google Forms. Paper presented at the National Conference on "Scientific,
Computational & Information Research Trends in Engineering, GSSS-IETW,
Mysore.
https://www.academia.edu/download/94296825/onlinesurveytoolsgoogle_formsnvn
sh22_160202065410.pdf
Zheng, H., Miao, X., Dong, Y., & Yuan, D. (2023). The Relationship Between
Grammatical Knowledge and Reading Comprehension: A Meta-Analysis. Frontiers
in Psychology. Front Psychol, 14(1098568), pp. 1-13.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1098568