101
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
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Estudio exploratorio de las diferencias en la elección de palabras según el género
en un programa de televisión popular panameño
Exploratory Study of gendered-linked differences in word choice in a popular
Panamanian talk show
1. Edith González, 2. Iliana Pineda Otero
1. Universidad de Panamá, Centro Regional Universitario de Coclé. Facultad de
Humanidades. Escuela de Inglés. Panamá. eadygonzalez@gmail.com,
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9090-5388
2. Universidad de Panamá, Centro Regional Universitario de Coclé. Facultad de
Humanidades. Escuela de Inglés. Panamá. iliana.79pineda@gmail.com,
https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9587-7339
Recibido: 1/5/2024 - Aceptado: 1/8/2024
DOI https://doi.org/10.48204/j.guacamaya.v9n1.a5809
Abstract
Differences between men's and women's word choices have always motivated
sociolinguistic studies that correlate these variations to the gender roles or stereotypes
that generate social judgments about people's expressions. This exploratory study
examined gendered-linked differences in word choices when discussing daily life issues.
The data was collected using a descriptive statistics table that compiled all the
euphemisms, diminutives, descriptive adjectives, and politeness markers used by four
conductors (two men and two women) of a popular Panamanian TV show in six
discussion forums. The information was later analyzed for response patterns, similarities,
and differences within and across the two groups. Our findings indicate remarkable
gendered-linked differences in the use of these words, evidence of word choice variation
across genders. We conclude that these variations are part of daily life communication
and illustrate the effect of social behaviors and ideologies on the use of language.
Key terms: sociolinguistics, stereotype, role, género.
Resumen
Las diferencias entre la elección de palabras de hombres y mujeres siempre han motivado
estudios sociolingüísticos que correlacionan estas variaciones con los roles o estereotipos
de género que generan juicios sociales sobre la expresión de las personas. El propósito de
este estudio exploratorio fue examinar las diferencias relacionadas con el género en la
elección de palabras cuando se habla de temas de la vida cotidiana. Los datos se
recopilaron mediante una tabla de estadística descriptiva donde se registraron todos los
pp. 101- 109
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eufemismos, diminutivos, adjetivos descriptivos y marcadores de cortesía utilizados por
cuatro presentadores (dos hombres y dos mujeres) de un popular programa de televisión
panameño en seis foros de discusión diferentes. Posteriormente se analizó la información
en busca de patrones de respuesta; similitudes y diferencias, dentro y entre los dos grupos.
Nuestros hallazgos indican notables diferencias en el uso de estas palabras, lo que
evidencia una variación significativa en su uso entre ambos géneros. Concluimos que
estas variaciones son parte de la comunicación de la vida diaria e ilustran el efecto de los
comportamientos e ideologías sociales en el uso del lenguaje.
Palabras clave: sociolingüística, estereotipo, rol, género.
Introduction
Variations in the use of language between men and women have motivated numerous
sociolinguist studies that try to establish connections between gender differences and
linguistic behavior. Some people attribute these differences to the dominance of one
gender over the other. In contrast, others advocate for two different gender subcultures
that generate variations in language use. This topic can generate debate about gender
bias in language since it represents a tool to promote gender inequality. However, this
exploratory sociolinguist study examines gendered-linked differences in lexical choices
due to gender roles and stereotypes. These choices shape our daily speech and create
expectations and social judgments about communication. (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 315).
Literature on this topic is exquisite and extensive. Although many linguists argue that
language itself is not gendered-biased, it is essential to remember that it is embedded in
culture and society. According to Holmer and Meyerhoff (2003), "There is a constant
interaction between language and society" (p. 112). Therefore, language mirrors social
attitudes and realities that influence people's linguistic behavior (Journal of Language
and Linguistics, 2006, p. 87). In addition, gender constitutes a critical component that
brings order to every society in different ways (Wardhaugh, 2006). Douglas and Sutton
(2003) indicate that "the popular portrayal of women and men as language users has
stressed their fundamental differences". In other words, the social perception of gender
differences creates different expectations of male and female speech. In this sense, and
from a social-cognitive perspective, language is also the "medium to express gender
identity and a reflection of it." Similarly, gender identity determines the listeners'
judgment about speakers (Douglas & Sutton, 2003, pp. 450-489).
Gender Stereotypes and Language Production
Stereotypes are part of society, and they determine a great deal of speakers' thoughts
and attitudes toward other people and things around them. The United Nations Office of
the High Commissioner for Human Rights defines gender stereotypes as "a generalized
view or preconception about attributes or characteristics, or the roles that are or ought to
be possessed by, or performed by, women and men" ("Gender Stereotyping," n.d.).
According to Hentschel et al. (2019), these stereotypes are part of men's and women's
mindsets and determine how they see each other regarding their characteristics
(introduction, para. 3). Menegatti and Rubini (2017) assert that gender stereotypes are
rooted in the different social roles assigned to each gender which vary across cultures
(The Origin of Gender Bias in Language: Gender Stereotypes, para. 1). In the same line
of thoughts, Wardhaugh (2006) attributes male and female's speech variants to the
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacamaya
eufemismos, diminutivos, adjetivos descriptivos y marcadores de cortesía utilizados por
cuatro presentadores (dos hombres y dos mujeres) de un popular programa de televisión
panameño en seis foros de discusión diferentes. Posteriormente se analizó la información
en busca de patrones de respuesta; similitudes y diferencias, dentro y entre los dos grupos.
Nuestros hallazgos indican notables diferencias en el uso de estas palabras, lo que
evidencia una variación significativa en su uso entre ambos géneros. Concluimos que
estas variaciones son parte de la comunicación de la vida diaria e ilustran el efecto de los
comportamientos e ideologías sociales en el uso del lenguaje.
Palabras clave: sociolingüística, estereotipo, rol, género.
Introduction
Variations in the use of language between men and women have motivated numerous
sociolinguist studies that try to establish connections between gender differences and
linguistic behavior. Some people attribute these differences to the dominance of one
gender over the other. In contrast, others advocate for two different gender subcultures
that generate variations in language use. This topic can generate debate about gender
bias in language since it represents a tool to promote gender inequality. However, this
exploratory sociolinguist study examines gendered-linked differences in lexical choices
due to gender roles and stereotypes. These choices shape our daily speech and create
expectations and social judgments about communication. (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 315).
Literature on this topic is exquisite and extensive. Although many linguists argue that
language itself is not gendered-biased, it is essential to remember that it is embedded in
culture and society. According to Holmer and Meyerhoff (2003), "There is a constant
interaction between language and society" (p. 112). Therefore, language mirrors social
attitudes and realities that influence people's linguistic behavior (Journal of Language
and Linguistics, 2006, p. 87). In addition, gender constitutes a critical component that
brings order to every society in different ways (Wardhaugh, 2006). Douglas and Sutton
(2003) indicate that "the popular portrayal of women and men as language users has
stressed their fundamental differences". In other words, the social perception of gender
differences creates different expectations of male and female speech. In this sense, and
from a social-cognitive perspective, language is also the "medium to express gender
identity and a reflection of it." Similarly, gender identity determines the listeners'
judgment about speakers (Douglas & Sutton, 2003, pp. 450-489).
Gender Stereotypes and Language Production
Stereotypes are part of society, and they determine a great deal of speakers' thoughts
and attitudes toward other people and things around them. The United Nations Office of
the High Commissioner for Human Rights defines gender stereotypes as "a generalized
view or preconception about attributes or characteristics, or the roles that are or ought to
be possessed by, or performed by, women and men" ("Gender Stereotyping," n.d.).
According to Hentschel et al. (2019), these stereotypes are part of men's and women's
mindsets and determine how they see each other regarding their characteristics
(introduction, para. 3). Menegatti and Rubini (2017) assert that gender stereotypes are
rooted in the different social roles assigned to each gender which vary across cultures
(The Origin of Gender Bias in Language: Gender Stereotypes, para. 1). In the same line
of thoughts, Wardhaugh (2006) attributes male and female's speech variants to the
103
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacamaya
different roles they play in their society which are usually learned since childhood and
preserved through generations. He also claims that both genders learn to behave
differently according to these roles, which is also reflected in our linguistic choices
when interacting. He adds that these female and male speech variants may imply
dominance of one gender over another instead of just differences resulting from
different social experiences (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 327).
As an illustration of these differences, Kruse et al. (1998) noticed how even in media
texts "men are placed more frequently in the role of logical subject and are described as
more active, whereas women are placed more frequently in helpless or victim roles and
are depicted as more passive and emotional" (as cited in Menegatti and Rubini, 2017,
Research on the Content of Gender Stereotypes in Language Use, para. 2). These
observations on the differences between men and women across cultures, gave birth to a
list of sociolinguistic universal tendencies which comprises their speech differences in
terms of patterns of language use, affective functions of interaction, solidarity markers
versus power and status indicators, and flexibility (Holmes, 1998, as cited in
Wardhaugh, 2006). These tendencies are deeply embedded in the culture of different
speech communities, evidenced in the lexical choices of their speakers in different
conversational contexts who unconsciously adopt attitudes toward each other that
perpetuate gender differences in their language. However, it is essential to acknowledge
that some of these ideas have changed due to our fast-evolving society, which seems
more open to accepting that men's and women's roles are interchangeable.
Also, Pavlidou (2011) mentions how gender roles shape the linguistic perception and
behavior of people who commonly label others' speech as feminine or masculine
according to their familiarity with speech models for men and women usually provided
by gender stereotypes. As an illustration, Weatherall (2005) also points out how
“Women's speech is believed to be grating and trivial, therefore easy to ignore” (p. 6).
The common sexist beliefs in a society have a direct impact on speakers' word choice.
These considerations have generated interesting studies on gender stereotypes and word
choice. Wardhaugh (2006) summarizes interesting findings of morphological and
lexical gender-biased studies in the English language. According to his report, women
are more likely to use highly descriptive adjectives such as adorable, lovely, divine, and
exquisite, which are uncommon in men's speech. In addition, women have a more
extensive repertoire of words describing pleasant experiences; some include fantastic,
so good, so fun, and others.
Another striking difference is that women tend to use fewer expletives than men do due
to unequal social judgments that consider this type of language inappropriate for female
speech. Similarly, women used more polite markers, solidarity markers, and affective
functions than men. Women's word choice seems to care a lot more about being kind,
respectful, and keeping good relationships with others. Similar studies have also shown
how women tend to use more diminutives and euphemisms than men do. According to
Menegatti and Rubini (2017), these differences in male and female speech show that
"stereotypical beliefs about men and women are embedded in the lexicon of many
languages" (Research on the Content of Gender Stereotypes in Language Use, para. 2).
These choices reflect even unconscious gendered-biased behavior and thoughts which,
according to feminists, usually put women in a disadvantageous position since they
favor men due to the unequal social judgments they portray.
As stated earlier, this exploratory study is not intended to spark sexist debates on gender
inequality or discrimination through language. Instead, given the evidence of similar
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacamaya
different roles they play in their society which are usually learned since childhood and
preserved through generations. He also claims that both genders learn to behave
differently according to these roles, which is also reflected in our linguistic choices
when interacting. He adds that these female and male speech variants may imply
dominance of one gender over another instead of just differences resulting from
different social experiences (Wardhaugh, 2006, p. 327).
As an illustration of these differences, Kruse et al. (1998) noticed how even in media
texts "men are placed more frequently in the role of logical subject and are described as
more active, whereas women are placed more frequently in helpless or victim roles and
are depicted as more passive and emotional" (as cited in Menegatti and Rubini, 2017,
Research on the Content of Gender Stereotypes in Language Use, para. 2). These
observations on the differences between men and women across cultures, gave birth to a
list of sociolinguistic universal tendencies which comprises their speech differences in
terms of patterns of language use, affective functions of interaction, solidarity markers
versus power and status indicators, and flexibility (Holmes, 1998, as cited in
Wardhaugh, 2006). These tendencies are deeply embedded in the culture of different
speech communities, evidenced in the lexical choices of their speakers in different
conversational contexts who unconsciously adopt attitudes toward each other that
perpetuate gender differences in their language. However, it is essential to acknowledge
that some of these ideas have changed due to our fast-evolving society, which seems
more open to accepting that men's and women's roles are interchangeable.
Also, Pavlidou (2011) mentions how gender roles shape the linguistic perception and
behavior of people who commonly label others' speech as feminine or masculine
according to their familiarity with speech models for men and women usually provided
by gender stereotypes. As an illustration, Weatherall (2005) also points out how
“Women's speech is believed to be grating and trivial, therefore easy to ignore” (p. 6).
The common sexist beliefs in a society have a direct impact on speakers' word choice.
These considerations have generated interesting studies on gender stereotypes and word
choice. Wardhaugh (2006) summarizes interesting findings of morphological and
lexical gender-biased studies in the English language. According to his report, women
are more likely to use highly descriptive adjectives such as adorable, lovely, divine, and
exquisite, which are uncommon in men's speech. In addition, women have a more
extensive repertoire of words describing pleasant experiences; some include fantastic,
so good, so fun, and others.
Another striking difference is that women tend to use fewer expletives than men do due
to unequal social judgments that consider this type of language inappropriate for female
speech. Similarly, women used more polite markers, solidarity markers, and affective
functions than men. Women's word choice seems to care a lot more about being kind,
respectful, and keeping good relationships with others. Similar studies have also shown
how women tend to use more diminutives and euphemisms than men do. According to
Menegatti and Rubini (2017), these differences in male and female speech show that
"stereotypical beliefs about men and women are embedded in the lexicon of many
languages" (Research on the Content of Gender Stereotypes in Language Use, para. 2).
These choices reflect even unconscious gendered-biased behavior and thoughts which,
according to feminists, usually put women in a disadvantageous position since they
favor men due to the unequal social judgments they portray.
As stated earlier, this exploratory study is not intended to spark sexist debates on gender
inequality or discrimination through language. Instead, given the evidence of similar
104
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacamaya
studies in English, our goal was to analyze gendered-linked differences in the word
choice of Panamanian TV show hosts for talking about specific topics in Spanish. These
variations were analyzed based on politeness markers, adjectives, euphemisms, and
diminutives. This article aims to report findings that describe the relationship between
gender and language from a sociolinguistic perspective to establish connections, if any,
between common gender stereotypes and male and female speech. The research
question that guides this study is: How does speakers’ word choice vary according to
gender when talking about daily life issues?
This article presents key findings from an analysis of the research data. The outcomes of
this study are interesting, with a taste of casual, everyday language that motivates
reflection on how we communicate. The discussion section provides valuable insights
into interpreting these findings, which can motivate further research on similar matters.
Finally, the conclusions summarize variants in word choice found in both genders and
their sociolinguistic implications for a better comprehension of people's linguistic
choices, the relationship between language and society, and other features of language
that usually go unnoticed in daily life speech.
Significance
This research project allows the analysis of sociolinguistic aspects of the language
related to gender and its effect on the lexical choices of men and women. Given the
existing literature on similar studies in the English language, this topic generates interest
and awakens the curiosity of professors and students. These aspects also deserve to be
explored in our language to generate new arguments based on evidence from the
Panamanian context. Furthermore, this type of study makes it possible to understand the
interaction between language and society better.
This study will be a reference for further research in this important branch of linguistics
for professors and students. It may be an option for senior students interested in writing
a thesis about sociolinguistic matters. Additionally, considering that research represents
one of the pillars of higher education, the present research promotes the development of
subsequent studies to generate new knowledge to explore other areas of knowledge.
Method and Materials
This study is an exploratory quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative since it
used a descriptive statistics table to record the information required for the analysis,
which generated numerical information that allowed a better understanding of the
comparative results that are the object of study. Likewise, it is qualitative since it allows
the analysis and description of data generated from observation and requires a verbal
interpretation of the information. This exploratory case study seeks to obtain
information about a sociolinguistic topic by comparing the word choice of presenters of
a specific television program according to gender. First, the existing literature of similar
studies in the English language was reviewed, allowing us to understand better the
research background that frames our project's study topic. In addition, it helped to find
authors and theories that support and validate the research by establishing connections
between similar studies in English and the present study in Spanish.
The data collection process involved several steps to register the word choices of every
speaker in a descriptive statistics table. This record instrument contained all the
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacamaya
studies in English, our goal was to analyze gendered-linked differences in the word
choice of Panamanian TV show hosts for talking about specific topics in Spanish. These
variations were analyzed based on politeness markers, adjectives, euphemisms, and
diminutives. This article aims to report findings that describe the relationship between
gender and language from a sociolinguistic perspective to establish connections, if any,
between common gender stereotypes and male and female speech. The research
question that guides this study is: How does speakers’ word choice vary according to
gender when talking about daily life issues?
This article presents key findings from an analysis of the research data. The outcomes of
this study are interesting, with a taste of casual, everyday language that motivates
reflection on how we communicate. The discussion section provides valuable insights
into interpreting these findings, which can motivate further research on similar matters.
Finally, the conclusions summarize variants in word choice found in both genders and
their sociolinguistic implications for a better comprehension of people's linguistic
choices, the relationship between language and society, and other features of language
that usually go unnoticed in daily life speech.
Significance
This research project allows the analysis of sociolinguistic aspects of the language
related to gender and its effect on the lexical choices of men and women. Given the
existing literature on similar studies in the English language, this topic generates interest
and awakens the curiosity of professors and students. These aspects also deserve to be
explored in our language to generate new arguments based on evidence from the
Panamanian context. Furthermore, this type of study makes it possible to understand the
interaction between language and society better.
This study will be a reference for further research in this important branch of linguistics
for professors and students. It may be an option for senior students interested in writing
a thesis about sociolinguistic matters. Additionally, considering that research represents
one of the pillars of higher education, the present research promotes the development of
subsequent studies to generate new knowledge to explore other areas of knowledge.
Method and Materials
This study is an exploratory quantitative and qualitative research. Quantitative since it
used a descriptive statistics table to record the information required for the analysis,
which generated numerical information that allowed a better understanding of the
comparative results that are the object of study. Likewise, it is qualitative since it allows
the analysis and description of data generated from observation and requires a verbal
interpretation of the information. This exploratory case study seeks to obtain
information about a sociolinguistic topic by comparing the word choice of presenters of
a specific television program according to gender. First, the existing literature of similar
studies in the English language was reviewed, allowing us to understand better the
research background that frames our project's study topic. In addition, it helped to find
authors and theories that support and validate the research by establishing connections
between similar studies in English and the present study in Spanish.
The data collection process involved several steps to register the word choices of every
speaker in a descriptive statistics table. This record instrument contained all the
105
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacamaya
Figure 1.
Word choice variation according to gender.
categories of words to be analyzed. The chart has two sections: one for women and
another for men. After designing the recording instrument, six clips were randomly
chosen from the channel's website that produces and broadcasts the talk show. It is vital
to mention that only the forum segment, conducted by the same presenters, was
analyzed as it generates considerable interaction among them rather than the entire
program.
One selection criterion for the TV show was the informal language register used by the
presenters, which primarily reflects how Panamanians express themselves in a casual
context. Another criterion for selection is that the presenters share the same occupation,
academic level, and social status, which helps avoid any bias in the conclusions.
Another reason is that the program is very varied and interactive, allowing ample
opportunities to produce various lexical forms, specifically those that are the object of
analysis of this research project.
After that, careful observation, listening, and labeling of the words and expressions
produced by every speaker was required. This process demanded constant pausing,
playing, and replaying of chunks of the clip to avoid missing words and expressions
according to the different categories. All the adjectives, euphemisms, diminutives, and
politeness indicators used by each presenter in six different discussion forums were
registered to establish connections between gender and word choice.
Later, the speakers' word choices for each category were counted and tabulated. These
answers were analyzed for common or uncommon response patterns, similarities, and
differences within and across the two groups using the categories of words mentioned
above. An illustrative graphic was designed to understand better the data analysis,
which produced exciting findings that will be presented in the following section.
Results and Discussion
This section analyzes the data collected by observing six discussions among four
popular talk show TV hosts. It is necessary to remember that this study aimed to find
variations in adjectives, diminutives, politeness markers, and euphemisms between men
and women. The results are graphically presented below.
Source: data obtained from TVNPass.com videos.
0
10
20
30
40
50
USE OF
POLITENESS
MARKERS
USE OF
ADJECTIVES
USE OF
DIMINUTIVES
USE OF
EUPHEMISMS
Women Men
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacamaya
Figure 1.
Word choice variation according to gender.
categories of words to be analyzed. The chart has two sections: one for women and
another for men. After designing the recording instrument, six clips were randomly
chosen from the channel's website that produces and broadcasts the talk show. It is vital
to mention that only the forum segment, conducted by the same presenters, was
analyzed as it generates considerable interaction among them rather than the entire
program.
One selection criterion for the TV show was the informal language register used by the
presenters, which primarily reflects how Panamanians express themselves in a casual
context. Another criterion for selection is that the presenters share the same occupation,
academic level, and social status, which helps avoid any bias in the conclusions.
Another reason is that the program is very varied and interactive, allowing ample
opportunities to produce various lexical forms, specifically those that are the object of
analysis of this research project.
After that, careful observation, listening, and labeling of the words and expressions
produced by every speaker was required. This process demanded constant pausing,
playing, and replaying of chunks of the clip to avoid missing words and expressions
according to the different categories. All the adjectives, euphemisms, diminutives, and
politeness indicators used by each presenter in six different discussion forums were
registered to establish connections between gender and word choice.
Later, the speakers' word choices for each category were counted and tabulated. These
answers were analyzed for common or uncommon response patterns, similarities, and
differences within and across the two groups using the categories of words mentioned
above. An illustrative graphic was designed to understand better the data analysis,
which produced exciting findings that will be presented in the following section.
Results and Discussion
This section analyzes the data collected by observing six discussions among four
popular talk show TV hosts. It is necessary to remember that this study aimed to find
variations in adjectives, diminutives, politeness markers, and euphemisms between men
and women. The results are graphically presented below.
Source: data obtained from TVNPass.com videos.
0
10
20
30
40
50
USE OF
POLITENESS
MARKERS
USE OF
ADJECTIVES
USE OF
DIMINUTIVES
USE OF
EUPHEMISMS
Women Men
106
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Use of politeness markers
As mentioned earlier, previous English studies on politeness markers among men and
women have reported that females are more likely to use expressions to show courtesy
than males. Similarly, our data analysis indicates a remarkable difference in the number
of polite markers used by each group in the six forums, evidencing women's tendency to
appear more polite and considerate when talking than men. Even though these results
align with our expectations, there are three critical observations on repetitive patterns of
use of these expressions during the interaction, which can draw lines for further studies.
First, one of the most common expressions among women was "con permiso, "permiso
por favor," which were frequently used for interrupting men who tended to take longer
when speaking. In contrast, men usually interrupted women's intervention without using
any polite expression or even without letting them conclude. In other words, for most of
the discussion, men tended to interrupt women abruptly and dominate most of the
speaking time, while women seemed to struggle to express their opinions. This behavior
may lead to thinking that they had to use more polite expressions to get the chance to
contribute their ideas to the conversation.
Another striking feature of this category is that unlike men's use of politeness markers,
which kept neutral and straightforward, women tended to attach the expression "mi
amor" to words such as gracias and Bienvenido for addressing people. These choices
made their speech sound softer, more friendly, and even more intimate than men's
speech, which is compatible with the emotional or feminine pattern of word choice
usually expected from women, as reported by literature on previous studies. Third, it
was also remarkable that women's repertoire of polite expressions was more expansive
than men's, whose most common word in the different forums was gracias.
Women's use of politeness markers is more frequent and more prominent in quantity
and variety. It seems impossible to come up with some plausible explanations for these
noticeable differences without making connections to typical patterns of behavior in
both genders, which are closely related to the social expectations for both groups in
terms of language use for daily interaction. In other words, women tend to be more
polite and good-mannered than men, who are more likely to dominate conversations by
interrupting or using a more neutral, direct kind of speaking, which significantly limits
courtesy expressions. In contrast, women seemed more concerned about sounding
cordial or respectful when addressing people, interrupting others, or asking for a turn to
speak. This choice resulted in significant discrepancies in polite speech patterns in the
six discussions analyzed. More profound studies can examine differences in politeness
markers used among men and women and the reasons for these variations.
Use of Adjectives
Previous comparative studies on men's and women's word choice in English have
reported women's remarkable preference for descriptive adjectives, which makes their
speech more colorful and vivid as they portray feelings and thoughts that are socially
considered inherent to the emotional manifestation of feminity. Contrary to this
premise, the graph of our results evidences a higher frequency of using adjectives in
men's speech, which led to interesting observations that generated valuable reflections.
First, even when men doubled the number of adjectives used by women, it was
remarkable that women tended to choose theirs more carefully, which made their
expressions more sophisticated and formal when describing people or situations. Some
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacamaya
Use of politeness markers
As mentioned earlier, previous English studies on politeness markers among men and
women have reported that females are more likely to use expressions to show courtesy
than males. Similarly, our data analysis indicates a remarkable difference in the number
of polite markers used by each group in the six forums, evidencing women's tendency to
appear more polite and considerate when talking than men. Even though these results
align with our expectations, there are three critical observations on repetitive patterns of
use of these expressions during the interaction, which can draw lines for further studies.
First, one of the most common expressions among women was "con permiso, "permiso
por favor," which were frequently used for interrupting men who tended to take longer
when speaking. In contrast, men usually interrupted women's intervention without using
any polite expression or even without letting them conclude. In other words, for most of
the discussion, men tended to interrupt women abruptly and dominate most of the
speaking time, while women seemed to struggle to express their opinions. This behavior
may lead to thinking that they had to use more polite expressions to get the chance to
contribute their ideas to the conversation.
Another striking feature of this category is that unlike men's use of politeness markers,
which kept neutral and straightforward, women tended to attach the expression "mi
amor" to words such as gracias and Bienvenido for addressing people. These choices
made their speech sound softer, more friendly, and even more intimate than men's
speech, which is compatible with the emotional or feminine pattern of word choice
usually expected from women, as reported by literature on previous studies. Third, it
was also remarkable that women's repertoire of polite expressions was more expansive
than men's, whose most common word in the different forums was gracias.
Women's use of politeness markers is more frequent and more prominent in quantity
and variety. It seems impossible to come up with some plausible explanations for these
noticeable differences without making connections to typical patterns of behavior in
both genders, which are closely related to the social expectations for both groups in
terms of language use for daily interaction. In other words, women tend to be more
polite and good-mannered than men, who are more likely to dominate conversations by
interrupting or using a more neutral, direct kind of speaking, which significantly limits
courtesy expressions. In contrast, women seemed more concerned about sounding
cordial or respectful when addressing people, interrupting others, or asking for a turn to
speak. This choice resulted in significant discrepancies in polite speech patterns in the
six discussions analyzed. More profound studies can examine differences in politeness
markers used among men and women and the reasons for these variations.
Use of Adjectives
Previous comparative studies on men's and women's word choice in English have
reported women's remarkable preference for descriptive adjectives, which makes their
speech more colorful and vivid as they portray feelings and thoughts that are socially
considered inherent to the emotional manifestation of feminity. Contrary to this
premise, the graph of our results evidences a higher frequency of using adjectives in
men's speech, which led to interesting observations that generated valuable reflections.
First, even when men doubled the number of adjectives used by women, it was
remarkable that women tended to choose theirs more carefully, which made their
expressions more sophisticated and formal when describing people or situations. Some
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of the adjectives this group used include maquiavélico, incisivo, polémico, ameno,
sensitivo, and others with equal semantic weight. A low incidence of highly descriptive
adjectives like those reported by some studies was also noticed. The reason may be
because it was not just a casual, informal conversation but a forum discussion on
specific topics.
Contrary to women, men's choice of adjectives was way more straightforward and more
informal. Even when they used more descriptive words, the two most common were
bueno and malo. In addition, they included words that can be considered slang, such as
máxima and tóxica. Another interesting observation concerns the connotation of the
adjectives they chose. Unlike women, men repeatedly used adjectives that, besides
being informal, may sound quite offensive since they are commonly employed to denote
negative traits or people's behavior in society. These words include regalada,
hambrienta, cochino, abusadora, metidas, vulgar, and others, which can sound like
inappropriate language registered for a TV show. Consequently, when it comes to using
adjectives, men are more relaxed and spontaneous than women are.
Use of Diminutives
Results for the use of diminutives and euphemisms were like those reported by studies
in English. Women used a more significant number of diminutive suffixes throughout
their participation in the discussions studied, making their speech more intimate and
friendly. They used them to interact within the discussion group and talk to people who
called for comments and opinions. The words llamadita and corazoncito were prevalent
in the six different discussions. Another remarkable feature is that women even tended
to change the correct diminutives from pobrecito to poechito, which may be considered
a very informal and colloquial word choice. However, because of the context in which it
was used, this word was mainly used as a solidarity marker to show empathy for some
of the situations shared by the audience.
Unlike women, the use of diminutives was limited and different in men's speech. First, a
minimal number of diminutive nouns and adjectives were registered for this group after
carefully examining six different videos. Besides this, it is vital to mention that the
contextualization of diminutives also seemed to be different. They used diminutives in
different situations and for different purposes. Many denoted sarcasm rather than
solidarity or intimacy, not just for the context but also for the stress and patterns of these
utterances. Some of the words in this short list include enamoradito, which refers to
why some men behave too generously and make wrong decisions with women from
their point of view.
Consequently, even when men use diminutives in their speech, their reasons and context
differ entirely from women's, making their speech sound different. The reasons for this
variation were beyond the scope of this analysis, which just focused on examining
variations. However, the literature on this topic suggests that gender stereotypes may
judge the use of diminutives in men as unmasculine, weak, or even immature, which
connects gender ideologies to word choice. Further studies could examine gendered-
linked beliefs about the use of diminutive forms among Panamanians.
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacamaya
of the adjectives this group used include maquiavélico, incisivo, polémico, ameno,
sensitivo, and others with equal semantic weight. A low incidence of highly descriptive
adjectives like those reported by some studies was also noticed. The reason may be
because it was not just a casual, informal conversation but a forum discussion on
specific topics.
Contrary to women, men's choice of adjectives was way more straightforward and more
informal. Even when they used more descriptive words, the two most common were
bueno and malo. In addition, they included words that can be considered slang, such as
máxima and tóxica. Another interesting observation concerns the connotation of the
adjectives they chose. Unlike women, men repeatedly used adjectives that, besides
being informal, may sound quite offensive since they are commonly employed to denote
negative traits or people's behavior in society. These words include regalada,
hambrienta, cochino, abusadora, metidas, vulgar, and others, which can sound like
inappropriate language registered for a TV show. Consequently, when it comes to using
adjectives, men are more relaxed and spontaneous than women are.
Use of Diminutives
Results for the use of diminutives and euphemisms were like those reported by studies
in English. Women used a more significant number of diminutive suffixes throughout
their participation in the discussions studied, making their speech more intimate and
friendly. They used them to interact within the discussion group and talk to people who
called for comments and opinions. The words llamadita and corazoncito were prevalent
in the six different discussions. Another remarkable feature is that women even tended
to change the correct diminutives from pobrecito to poechito, which may be considered
a very informal and colloquial word choice. However, because of the context in which it
was used, this word was mainly used as a solidarity marker to show empathy for some
of the situations shared by the audience.
Unlike women, the use of diminutives was limited and different in men's speech. First, a
minimal number of diminutive nouns and adjectives were registered for this group after
carefully examining six different videos. Besides this, it is vital to mention that the
contextualization of diminutives also seemed to be different. They used diminutives in
different situations and for different purposes. Many denoted sarcasm rather than
solidarity or intimacy, not just for the context but also for the stress and patterns of these
utterances. Some of the words in this short list include enamoradito, which refers to
why some men behave too generously and make wrong decisions with women from
their point of view.
Consequently, even when men use diminutives in their speech, their reasons and context
differ entirely from women's, making their speech sound different. The reasons for this
variation were beyond the scope of this analysis, which just focused on examining
variations. However, the literature on this topic suggests that gender stereotypes may
judge the use of diminutives in men as unmasculine, weak, or even immature, which
connects gender ideologies to word choice. Further studies could examine gendered-
linked beliefs about the use of diminutive forms among Panamanians.
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octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
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Use of Euphemisms
As indicated in the figure, euphemisms were less frequent than the other words in this
study. However, women registered a higher number of euphemisms than men did. Most
were expressions describing people's feelings or behavior that may look incorrect or
inappropriate in society. Some of them include: corazón de hielo, llevar la fiesta en paz,
andar en trampa, etc. On the other hand, men registered a low number of euphemisms,
but the ones they used were quite like those used by females. As stated earlier, men
seemed more spontaneous and relaxed in the six discussions studied without much
concern about some of the words they used. There was a tendency to sound informal
and relaxed in how they spoke, whereas women seemed to care a lot more about
sounding formal. The reasons may be due to several factors, yet this clearly illustrates a
difference in their word choice and communication.
From a sociolinguist perspective, these differences are attributable to the correlation
between gender differences and verbal communication. Women are usually more
sensitive, polite, or formal due to a history of an unprivileged position about men. This
conditions their expression to avoid social judgments that may question or mark how
they speak as unfeminine or inappropriate. On the contrary, and perhaps due to a more
privileged position in society, men usually appear careless about their linguistic choices
since, unlike women, their informal expressions may appear masculine.
The language used in a TV show is usually formal and standard. However, conditions
may vary, considering the type of show or program. In this case, the talk show elected
for the study is relatively informal, which enables a more friendly and informal way of
speaking. However, many differences between male and female speech were identified
even when that is the case.
Conclusion
There is valuable evidence of variants in word choice between men and women. These
variants are more evident in politeness markers, diminutives, and descriptive adjectives
than in euphemisms, where women scored higher. There is a minimal difference in
euphemisms, yet women also indicated more frequent use of these words. Men's choices
vary depending on the seriousness of the topic, while women's speech stays the same
regardless of the situation.
Bibliographic references
Douglas, K. M., & Sutton, R. M. (2003). Effects of communication goals and
expectancies on language abstraction. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 84(4), 682. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.682
Hentschel, T., Heilman, M. E., & Peus, C. V. (2019). The multiple dimensions of gender
stereotypes: A current look at men's and women's characterizations of others and
themselves. Frontiers in Psychology, 11.
Holmes, J. & Meyerhoff, M. (2003). The Handbook of Language and Gender.
Blackwell Publishing.
Menegatti, M., & Rubini, M. (2017). Gender bias and sexism in language. In Oxford
research encyclopedia of communication.
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacamaya
Use of Euphemisms
As indicated in the figure, euphemisms were less frequent than the other words in this
study. However, women registered a higher number of euphemisms than men did. Most
were expressions describing people's feelings or behavior that may look incorrect or
inappropriate in society. Some of them include: corazón de hielo, llevar la fiesta en paz,
andar en trampa, etc. On the other hand, men registered a low number of euphemisms,
but the ones they used were quite like those used by females. As stated earlier, men
seemed more spontaneous and relaxed in the six discussions studied without much
concern about some of the words they used. There was a tendency to sound informal
and relaxed in how they spoke, whereas women seemed to care a lot more about
sounding formal. The reasons may be due to several factors, yet this clearly illustrates a
difference in their word choice and communication.
From a sociolinguist perspective, these differences are attributable to the correlation
between gender differences and verbal communication. Women are usually more
sensitive, polite, or formal due to a history of an unprivileged position about men. This
conditions their expression to avoid social judgments that may question or mark how
they speak as unfeminine or inappropriate. On the contrary, and perhaps due to a more
privileged position in society, men usually appear careless about their linguistic choices
since, unlike women, their informal expressions may appear masculine.
The language used in a TV show is usually formal and standard. However, conditions
may vary, considering the type of show or program. In this case, the talk show elected
for the study is relatively informal, which enables a more friendly and informal way of
speaking. However, many differences between male and female speech were identified
even when that is the case.
Conclusion
There is valuable evidence of variants in word choice between men and women. These
variants are more evident in politeness markers, diminutives, and descriptive adjectives
than in euphemisms, where women scored higher. There is a minimal difference in
euphemisms, yet women also indicated more frequent use of these words. Men's choices
vary depending on the seriousness of the topic, while women's speech stays the same
regardless of the situation.
Bibliographic references
Douglas, K. M., & Sutton, R. M. (2003). Effects of communication goals and
expectancies on language abstraction. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, 84(4), 682. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/0022-3514.84.4.682
Hentschel, T., Heilman, M. E., & Peus, C. V. (2019). The multiple dimensions of gender
stereotypes: A current look at men's and women's characterizations of others and
themselves. Frontiers in Psychology, 11.
Holmes, J. & Meyerhoff, M. (2003). The Handbook of Language and Gender.
Blackwell Publishing.
Menegatti, M., & Rubini, M. (2017). Gender bias and sexism in language. In Oxford
research encyclopedia of communication.
109
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacamaya
Lei, X. (2006). Sexism in language. Journal of Language and Linguistics, 5(1), 87–94.
Pavlidou, T.-S. (2011). Gender and interaction. The SAGE Handbook of
Sociolinguistics, 412–427. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446200957.n29
Castillo R. (Productor Ejecutivo). (2016-2024). Jelou! [Programa de Televisión]. TVN
Media
United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner (n.d.). Gender
Stereotyping. www.ohchr.org/en/women/gender-stereotyping
Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An introduction to sociolinguistics (5th ed., Ser. P40.W27 2006
306.44—dc22). Blackwell Publishing.
Weatherall, A. (2005). Gender, Language, and Discourse. United Kingdom: Taylor &
Francis.
octubre 2024 –marzo 2025 | Vol.9| Nº. 1| ISSN 2616-9711
https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/guacamaya
Lei, X. (2006). Sexism in language. Journal of Language and Linguistics, 5(1), 87–94.
Pavlidou, T.-S. (2011). Gender and interaction. The SAGE Handbook of
Sociolinguistics, 412–427. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446200957.n29
Castillo R. (Productor Ejecutivo). (2016-2024). Jelou! [Programa de Televisión]. TVN
Media
United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner (n.d.). Gender
Stereotyping. www.ohchr.org/en/women/gender-stereotyping
Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An introduction to sociolinguistics (5th ed., Ser. P40.W27 2006
306.44—dc22). Blackwell Publishing.
Weatherall, A. (2005). Gender, Language, and Discourse. United Kingdom: Taylor &
Francis.