Revista Panameña de Ciencias Sociales

Ethnic and racial perspective in censuses:

Joyce Alesaneth Morris Carrera — 2026-04-22

This article analyzes ethnic-racial inequality in Latin America and Panama from a historical and statistical perspective. It argues that current disparities are not isolated phenomena but the result of a long-standing structural process rooted in colonial domination and slavery, whose intergenerational consequences persist in income distribution, labor segmentation, and social

exclusion. The paper examines recent progress in the inclusion of ethnic-racial variables in census rounds, emphasizing that statistical visibility is a technical prerequisite for a rights-based approach. In Panama, the increase in Afro-descendant self-identification (from 9.2% to 31.7%) and Indigenous self-identification (from 12.3% to 17.2%) between 2010 and 2023 is interpreted as the result of methodological improvements and strengthened identity recognition rather than abrupt demographic growth. The findings reveal intersectional inequalities in aging, adolescent fertility, education, labor market participation, income distribution, access to leadership positions, social protection, and disability profiles. The study concludes that disaggregated statistics are essential for designing differentiated public policies and advancing toward greater social equity.

Structural reform of social security in Panama by 2025:

Ana E. Patiño Martínez — 2026-04-22

This article analyzes the historical, political, and structural process of social security reforms in Panama, culminating in the approval of Law 462 of 2025, which amends Organic Law 51 of the Social Security Fund (CSS). Using a historical-critical approach, it examines the evolution of the solidarity-based model established in 1941, its transformation during the neoliberal reforms of the 1990s, and the progressive dismantling of the public social protection system. Social security is contextualized within the framework of international standards promoted by the ILO, highlighting its principles of solidarity, universality, and tripartite financing. Based on this framework, the defined benefit and individual account models are compared. The social conflict of 2025 is documented, including prolonged strikes, the prosecution of leaders, widespread labor disruptions, and allegations of human rights violations. It also presents an economic assessment that estimates sectoral losses without compromising overall GDP growth, along with an actuarial exercise that verifies the sustainability of the solidarity-based model until 2095. A comparison of pensions demonstrates that individual accounts will produce replacement rates of less than 30%, resulting in insufficient pensions and exacerbating social inequalities. The report concludes that the reform constitutes a regressive structural change that weakens social cohesion and deepens the commodification of the right to social security.

The social struggle against the modifications to the social security law:

William R. Hughes O. — 2026-04-22

Law 462, which modifies the social security system in Panama, and the way the government imposed it through repression of the social movement and its leadership, is a clear expression of the actions of far-right, fascist-leaning governments. They present their demonic acts as saviors of freedom and democracy and promote an ideology that portrays social leaders as “terrorists,” “communists,” and “radical leftists” who seek to sow chaos and destroy democracy. Lower pensions, an implicit increase in the retirement age, uncertainty regarding pension amounts, the unification of the health system to fund the Ministry of Health’s expenses, and the use of these funds to finance fiscal deficits and debt interest payments, create an environment of political instability. The surrender of the country’s sovereignty to a foreign government and the government’s acquiescence to US demands opens other sources of conflict, both nationally and internationally. Law 462 is an example of the current government’s approach and the power structure it represents, of how it will treat the social movement when it implements the other issues on its agenda, but this does not guarantee its success.

Social Security and its Transformation in México:

María Martha Rincón Escobedo — 2026-04-22

From the generational perspective of university students in Torreón, Coahuila, the sustainability of the pension system in México is perceived as controversial given the reality of an aging population and the structural inadequacy of the individual contribution model.

Therefore, our objetive was to identify the level of information, trust, and expectations that the Y and Z generations of university students at the TecNM La Laguna campus and the Autonomous University of Coahuila (UAC) have regarding the conditions of the social security system and how they envision its future. The results, obtained through a quantitative, descriptive-comparative approach with a sample of 472 students selected, with 30 itms, from the Y and Z generations, using surveys and focus groups in 11 schools and faculties of the UAC and TecNM La Laguna campus (both public institutions), show that they perceive the system as unsustainable and unequal. There is widespread confidence that future pensions will cover basic needs; over 80% believe the pension system will primarily benefit current generations of older adults. It is important to note that significant differences exist based on demographic variables and socioeconomic level. In conclusion, a clear and proactive approach from all stakeholders is commendable in the face of this crisis of legitimacy within the pension system.

The Teachers’ Movement Against Law 462:

Diógenes Sánchez Pérez — 2026-04-22

Law 462 of 2025, which amended the Organic Law of the Social Security Fund in Panama, sparked social mobilizations in which the teachers’ movement played a prominent role. The government argued that the law was a financial solution, while the teaching sector considered that it undermined the principle of solidarity in the pension system, already weakened since the 2005 reforms. The teachers’ movement expressed its rejection of Law 462 due to its focus on individual capitalization and the change in the pension financing model, noting that this could increase uncertainty regarding pensions and weaken the intergenerational solidarity of the social

security system. The protests centered on defending the rights and expectations of a dignified life for both teachers and the Panamanian population. Although the law did not immediately modify the retirement age or existing pension schemes, the new calculation would imply a significant reduction in pension amounts, generating a cautious attitude toward the reforms proposed by the government and the business sector.

More Democracy, Less Authoritarianism: A Brief Analysis of Repression in Panama

Abdiel Rodríguez Reyes — 2026-04-22

The article argues that under President José Raúl Mulino repression increased in Panama after Law 462, revealing a pattern of protest criminalization, due-process violations, and attacks on indigenous communities, unions, and teachers—indicating an authoritarian drift and the need for independent investigations and stronger democratic participation.

Panama

Olmedo Beluche — 2026-04-22

The extraordinary events that took place in Panama during April and June of 2025, while they may seem exceptional, are a logical consequence of the crisis of the global capitalist system. In this sense, they are linked to other similar events that have occurred around the world and in Latin America, such as the youth uprisings in Chile and Colombia in recent years, the struggles of the Ecuadorian indigenous people of CONAIE, the democratic mobilizations in Honduras and Guatemala, and the popular insurrection in Nicaragua against the pension system reform imposed by the IMF in 2018. The causes of the social explosion experienced by the Panamanian population are rooted in deep structural problems inherited from the country’s history; that is, the way in which Panama has been integrated into the global capitalist market since the 16th century (transitionism), exacerbated by 40 years of capitalist decline under neoliberal policies. Thus, the internal imbalances imposed by the allocation of the goods transit region defined from the centers of hegemonic power have worsened the situation of inequality imposed by neoliberal capitalism on its inhabitants.

Bullying beyond the school environment

Mayka Him — 2026-04-22

Bullying has historically been addressed as a phenomenon confined to the school environment and childhood, which has encouraged reductionist interpretations that obscure its structural, multicausal

nature and its persistence throughout the life course. This article aims to analyze bullying from a comprehensive perspective, incorporating ethological, psychological, and sociological approaches, with particular emphasis on its reproduction within institutional, media, and political spheres in the Panamanian context. The study adopts a mixed, descriptive-exploratory approach that combines documentary review, semi-structured interviews with teachers, school administrators, and social professionals, the application of surveys to parents and teachers, as well as discourse content analysis of media outlets and digital platforms. The findings indicate that bullying is neither an isolated nor an exclusively school-based phenomenon, but rather an expression of unequal power relations, symbolic violence, and processes of social exclusion. These dynamics are reinforced by weaknesses within the family environment, limitations of the educational system, fragmentation of public policies, and the normalization of aggression in the media. Additionally, the study identifies medium —and long— term psychosocial and biological consequences affecting victims, aggressors, and bystanders alike.

The Big Tech Paradox

David Muñoz Morales — 2026-04-22

This literature review presents the thesis of the dual nature of big tech, a paradox in which digital technology serves primarily to sustain the profitability of capitalism, but also as a driver of emancipatory projects, from a new humanist perspective. The objective is to analyze contemporary digital capitalism from a structuralist and systemic theoretical perspective, exploring how technological innovation precipitates the endogenous contradictions of the mode of production, opening up opportunities for the emergence of a digital humanism. The methodology consists of reviewing the main data that characterizes big tech under Karl Marx’s theory of the tendency of the rate of profit to fall in capitalism in order to give the analysis an approach from political economy. The conclusion is that big tech, as a set of capitalist corporations, faces the contradictions of its endogenous limitation, progressively allowing the socialization of technology that serves to generate scientific practices and the creation of emancipatory knowledge such as digital humanities, projecting itself as a possible and necessary digital humanism.

Benefits of regular physical activity on cognitive function and neuroplasticity in patients with mental disorders and neurodegenerative diseases

Naschelly Beitia Mercado — 2026-04-22

From the perspective of exercise science and physical education, various studies and research have shown that regular physical activity contributes to the prevention of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and regulates key neurotransmitters in patients with anxiety, depression and stress. Depending on the level, in mild cases, physical activity can be a primary therapeutic tool, while in moderate or severe situations, it acts as an essential complement to pharmacological treatment. Therefore, physical activity not only optimizes cognitive functions such as memory, attention, processing speed, cognitive flexibility, executive functions, learning, language, and reasoning, but also promotes neuroplasticity, synaptic plasticity, neurogenesis, and an increase in brain-derived neurotrophic factor, among other benefits, which are advantageous for improving the long-term quality of life of a society.

Achiote

Saúl Rolando Cortéz Chifundo — 2026-04-22

In Achiote, the problem of its founding origins and the behavior of Catholicism captivated us. Our objectives were to approximate its founding origins, given the evident lack of knowledge among its own inhabitants in the 21st century, and to study the behavior of Catholicism from an Italian microhistorical perspective. This study employs a non-experimental design, which led us to

conduct fieldwork with exploratory and/or explanatory aspects, supported by a qualitative approach. The absence of written documentary sources forced us to rely on the tools of oral history, historical anthropology, and Italian microhistory. The results show that this human settlement may have originated around 1922 when the American authorities permitted agricultural activity by granting land-use permits; And that fragmentary remnants of ancient patterns of anti-reformation Catholicism from the 16th and 17th centuries combined with new regulations that made access to the Sacraments more rigorous for parishioners, produced severe ruptures with the forms of religious expression legitimized in the harsh daily life of Achiote. This research gives voice to the stories of Achiote residents who, as social actors, were excluded from history, and whose oral testimonies allowed us to approach the founding origins of the town of Achiote, reconstruct the past state of Catholicism, and examine its behavior.

Editorial

Lollalty de Cuvillier — 2026-04-22