ASPECTOS RELEVANTES DE LEISHMANIAVIRUS EN AISLADOS DE Leishmania spp.

Armando Assair Bonilla Fong

Submitted January 24, 2023

Published 2023-01-25

Artículos

Vol. 33 No. 1 (2023): Scientia

RELEVANT ASPECTS OF LEISHMANIAVIRUS IN ISOLATES OF Leishmania spp.

Armando Assair Bonilla Fong⁺⁻

PDF (Español (España))

Citación:

DOI: ND

Published: 2023-01-25

How to Cite

Bonilla Fong, A. A. (2023). RELEVANT ASPECTS OF LEISHMANIAVIRUS IN ISOLATES OF Leishmania spp. Scientia, 33(1), 85–96. Retrieved from https://revistas.up.ac.pa/index.php/scientia/article/view/3534

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

Abstract

Leishmaniasis is a vectorial disease caused by protozoa of the genus Leishmania that affects macrophage cells of the host. Clinical complications and treatment failures have been related to the presence of a double-stranded ribonucleic acid virus of the Totiviridae family. Leishmania virus 1 is found exclusively in the New World and Leishmania virus 2 in the Old World. The virus is known to interact with Toll-like receptor 3 on host cells to stimulate the production of proinflammatory cytokines that result in on disease severity and parasite survival. This short review explores what has been observed and studied about leishmaniavirus from a historical and immunological perspective.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

References

Adaui, V., Lye, L. F., Akopyants, N. S., Zimic, M., Llanos-Cuentas, A., Garcia, L., Maes, I., de Doncker, S., Dobson, D. E., Arevalo, J., Dujardin, J. C., & Beverley, S. M. (2016). Association of the endobiont double-stranded RNA virus LRV1 with treatment failure for human leishmaniasis caused by leishmania braziliensis in Peru and Bolivia. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 213(1), 112–121. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiv354
Atayde, V. D., da Silva Lira Filho, A., Chaparro, V., Zimmermann, A., Martel, C., Jaramillo, M., & Olivier, M. (2019). Exploitation of the Leishmania exosomal pathway by Leishmania RNA virus 1. Nature Microbiology, 4(4), 714–723. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-018-0352-y
Barrett, M. P., & Croft, S. L. (2012). Management of trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis. In British Medical Bulletin (Vol. 104, Issue 1, pp. 175–196). https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/lds031
Brettmann, E. A., Shaik, J. S., Zangger, H., Lye, L. F., Kuhlmann, F. M., Akopyants, N. S., Oschwald, D. M., Owens, K. L., Hickerson, S. M., Ronet, C., Fasel, N., & Beverley, S. M. (2016). Tilting the balance between RNA interference and replication eradicates Leishmania RNA virus 1 and mitigates the inflammatory response. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(43), 11998–12005. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1615085113
Cai, G., Myers, K., Hillman, B. I., & Fry, W. E. (2009). A novel virus of the late blight pathogen, Phytophthora infestans, with two RNA segments and a supergroup 1 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Virology, 392(1), 52–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2009.06.040
Cantanhêde, L. M., da Silva Júnior, C. F., Ito, M. M., Felipin, K. P., Nicolete, R., Salcedo, J. M. V., Porrozzi, R., Cupolillo, E., & Ferreira, R. de G. M. (2015). Further Evidence of an Association between the Presence of Leishmania RNA Virus 1 and the Mucosal Manifestations in Tegumentary Leishmaniasis Patients. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 9(9). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0004079
Chahar, H. S., Bao, X., & Casola, A. (2015). Exosomes and their role in the life cycle and pathogenesis of RNA viruses. In Viruses (Vol. 7, Issue 6, pp. 3204–3225). MDPI AG. https://doi.org/10.3390/v7062770
de Oliveira Ramos Pereira, L., Maretti-Mira, A. C., Rodrigues, K. M., Lima, R. B., de Oliveira-Neto, M. P., Cupolillo, E., Pirmez, C., & de Oliveira, M. P. (2013). Severity of tegumentary leishmaniasis is not exclusively associated with Leishmania RNA virus 1 infection in Brazil. Memorias Do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 108(5), 665–667. https://doi.org/10.1590/0074-0276108052013021
de Souza, M. M., Manzine, L. R., da Silva, M. V. G., Bettini, J., Portugal, R. V., Cruz, A. K., Arruda, E., & Thiemann, O. H. (2014). An improved purification procedure for Leishmania RNA virus (LRV). In Brazilian Journal of Microbiology (Vol. 45, Issue 2). https://doi.org/10.1590/S1517-83822014000200044
Dreux, M., Garaigorta, U., Boyd, B., Décembre, E., Chung, J., Whitten-Bauer, C., Wieland, S., & Chisari, F. v. (2012). Short-range exosomal transfer of viral RNA from infected cells to plasmacytoid dendritic cells triggers innate immunity. Cell Host and Microbe, 12(4), 558–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2012.08.010
Eren, R. O., Reverte, M., Rossi, M., Hartley, M. A., Castiglioni, P., Prevel, F., Martin, R., Desponds, C., Lye, L. F., Drexler, S. K., Reith, W., Beverley, S. M., Ronet, C., & Fasel, N. (2016). Mammalian Innate Immune Response to a Leishmania-Resident RNA Virus Increases Macrophage Survival to Promote Parasite Persistence. Cell Host and Microbe, 20(3), 318–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2016.08.001
Forterre, P. (2010). Defining Life: The Virus Viewpoint. Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres, 40(2), 151–160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11084-010-9194-1
Grybchuk, D., Akopyants, N. S., Kostygov, A. Y., Konovalovas, A., Lye, L. F., Dobson, D. E., Zangger, H., Fasel, N., Butenko, A., Frolov, A. O., Votýpka, J., D’Avila-Levy, C. M., Kulich, P., Moravcová, J., Plevka, P., Rogozin, I. B., Serva, S., Lukeš, J., Beverley, S. M., & Yurchenko, V. (2018). Viral discovery and diversity in trypanosomatid protozoa with a focus on relatives of the human parasite Leishmania. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115(3), E506–E515. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1717806115
Guilbride, L., Myler, P. J., & Stuart, K. (1992). Distribution and sequence divergence of LRV1 viruses among different Leishmania species. In Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology (Vol. 54, Issue 1). https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-6851(92)90099-6
Hartley, M. A., Drexler, S., Ronet, C., Beverley, S. M., & Fasel, N. (2014). The immunological, environmental, and phylogenetic perpetrators of metastatic leishmaniasis. In Trends in Parasitology (Vol. 30, Issue 8, pp. 412–422). Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2014.05.006
Ives, A., Ronet, C., Prevel, F., Ruzzante, G., Fuertes-Marraco, S., Schutz, F., Zangger, H., Revaz-Breton, M., Lye, L. F., Hickerson, S. M., Beverley, S. M., Acha-Orbea, H., Launois, P., Fasel, N., & Masina, S. (2011). Leishmania RNA virus controls the severity of mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. Science, 331(6018), 775–778. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1199326
Kariyawasam, R., Grewal, J., Lau, R., Purssell, A., Valencia, B. M., Llanos-Cuentas, A., & Boggild, A. K. (2017). Influence of Leishmania RNA Virus 1 on Proinflammatory Biomarker Expression in a Human Macrophage Model of American Tegumentary Leishmaniasis. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 216(7), 877–886. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jix416
Kariyawasam, R., Lau, R., Valencia, B. M., Llanos-Cuentas, A., & Boggild, A. K. (2020). Leishmania RNA Virus 1 (LRV-1) in leishmania (viannia) braziliensis isolates from Peru: A description of demographic and clinical correlates. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 102(2), 280–285. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.19-0147
Kariyawasam, R., Mukkala, A. N., Lau, R., Valencia, B. M., Llanos-Cuentas, A., & Boggild, A. K. (2019). Virulence factor RNA transcript expression in the Leishmania Viannia subgenus: Influence of species, isolate source, and Leishmania RNA virus-1. Tropical Medicine and Health, 47(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41182-019-0153-x
Maga, J. A., Widmer, G., & LeBowitz, J. H. (1995). Leishmania RNA virus 1-mediated cap-independent translation. In Molecular and Cellular Biology (Vol. 15, Issue 9). https://doi.org/10.1128/mcb.15.9.4884
Mertens, P. (2004). The dsRNA viruses. Virus Research, 101(1), 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2003.12.002
Miller, J. H., & Swartzwelder, J. C. (1960). Virus-like Particles in an Entamoeba histolytica Trophozoite. In The Journal of Parasitology (Vol. 46, Issue 4). https://doi.org/10.2307/3275152
Mokni, M. (2019). Cutaneous leishmaniasis. In Annales de Dermatologie et de Venereologie (Vol. 146, Issue 3, pp. 232–246). Elsevier Masson SAS. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annder.2019.02.002
Néris, P. L. N., Caldas, J. P. A., Rodrigues, Y. K. S., Amorim, F. M., Leite, J. A., Rodrigues-Mascarenhas, S., Barbosa-Filho, J. M., Rodrigues, L. C., & Oliveira, M. R. (2013). Neolignan Licarin A presents effect against Leishmania (Leishmania) major associated with immunomodulation in vitro. Experimental Parasitology, 135(2), 307–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2013.07.007
Olivier, M., & Zamboni, D. S. (2020). Leishmania Viannia guyanensis, LRV1 virus and extracellular vesicles: a dangerous trio influencing the faith of immune response during muco-cutaneous leishmaniasis. In Current Opinion in Immunology (Vol. 66, pp. 108–113). Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coi.2020.08.004
Parra-Muñoz, M., Aponte, S., Ovalle-Bracho, C., Saavedra, C. H., & Echeverry, M. C. (2021). detection of leishmania RNA virus in clinical samples from cutaneous leishmaniasis patients varies according to the type of sample. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 104(1), 233–239. https://doi.org/10.4269/AJTMH.20-0073
Reithinger, R., Dujardin, J. C., Louzir, H., Pirmez, C., Alexander, B., & Brooker, S. (2007). Cutaneous leishmaniasis. In Lancet Infectious Diseases (Vol. 7, Issue 9, pp. 581–596). https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(07)70209-8
Saberi, R., Fakhar, M., Mohebali, M., Anvari, D., & Gholami, S. (2019). Global status of synchronizing Leishmania RNA virus in Leishmania parasites: A systematic review with meta-analysis. In Transboundary and Emerging Diseases (Vol. 66, Issue 6, pp. 2244–2251). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.13316
Scheffter, S., Widmer, G., & Patterson, J. L. (1994). Complete Sequence of Leishmania RNA Virus 1-4 and Identification of Conserved Sequences. In Virology (Vol. 199, Issue 2, pp. 479–483). https://doi.org/10.1006/viro.1994.1149
Scott, P. (2005). Immunologic memory in cutaneous leishmaniasis. In Cellular Microbiology (Vol. 7, Issue 12, pp. 1707–1713). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-5822.2005.00626.x
Stuart, K. D., Weeks, R., Guilbride, L., & Myler, P. J. (1992). Molecular organization of Leishmania RNA virus 1. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 89(18), 8596–8600. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.89.18.8596
Tang, J., Ochoa, W. F., Sinkovits, R. S., Poulos, B. T., Ghabrial, S. A., Lightner, D. v., Baker, T. S., & Nibert, M. L. (2008). Infectious myonecrosis virus has a totivirus-like, 120-subunit capsid, but with fiber complexes at the fivefold axes. In Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (Vol. 105, Issue 45). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0806724105
Tarr, P. I., Aline, R. F., Smiley, B. L., Scholler, J., Keithly, J., & Stuart, K. (1988). LR1: A candidate RNA virus of Leishmania. In Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (Vol. 85, Issue 24). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.85.24.9572
Tsirigotakis, N., Pavlou, C., Christodoulou, V., Dokianakis, E., Kourouniotis, C., Alten, B., Antoniou, M., Tsirigotakis, N., Christodoulou, V., Poulakakis, N., Antoniou, M., Engel, P., Moran, N. A., Sunter, J., Gull, K., BLUM, J. J., Marayati, B. F., Schal, C., Ponnusamy, L., … Bates, P. A. (2018). Chapter 7 – Reduviid Predators. In Parasites and Vectors (Vol. 3, Issue 1). https://doi.org/%0Ahttp://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13071-015-1261-z
Walker, P. J., Siddell, S. G., Lefkowitz, E. J., Mushegian, A. R., Dempsey, D. M., Dutilh, B. E., Harrach, B., Harrison, R. L., Hendrickson, R. C., Junglen, S., Knowles, N. J., Kropinski, A. M., Krupovic, M., Kuhn, J. H., Nibert, M., Rubino, L., Sabanadzovic, S., Simmonds, P., Varsani, A., … Davison, A. J. (2019). Changes to virus taxonomy and the International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature ratified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2019). Archives of Virology, 164(9), 2417–2429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00705-019-04306-w
Widmer, G., & Dooley, S. (1995). Phylogenetic analysis of Leishmania RNA virus and leishmania suggests ancient virus-parasite association. In Nucleic Acids Research (Vol. 23, Issue 12). https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/23.12.2300
Widmer, G., & Patterson, J. L. (1991). Genomic structure and RNA polymerase activity in Leishmania virus. In Journal of Virology (Vol. 65, Issue 8). https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.65.8.4211-4215.1991
Zangger, H., Ronet, C., Desponds, C., Kuhlmann, F. M., Robinson, J., Hartley, M. A., Prevel, F., Castiglioni, P., Pratlong, F., Bastien, P., Müller, N., Parmentier, L., Saravia, N. G., Beverley, S. M., & Fasel, N. (2013). Detection of Leishmania RNA Virus in Leishmania Parasites. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002006

Keywords

PDF (Español (España))

Resumen visto - 318 veces
PDF (Español (España)) descargado - 314

Licencia

Este obra está bajo una licencia de Creative Commons Reconocimiento-NoComercial-CompartirIgual 4.0 Internacional.

Content Top

[1] Adaui, V., Lye, L. F., Akopyants, N. S., Zimic, M., Llanos-Cuentas, A., Garcia, L., Maes, I., de Doncker, S., Dobson, D. E., Arevalo, J., Dujardin, J. C., & Beverley, S. M. (2016). Association of the endobiont double-stranded RNA virus LRV1 with treatment failure for human leishmaniasis caused by leishmania braziliensis in Peru and Bolivia. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 213(1), 112–121. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiv354

[2] Atayde, V. D., da Silva Lira Filho, A., Chaparro, V., Zimmermann, A., Martel, C., Jaramillo, M., & Olivier, M. (2019). Exploitation of the Leishmania exosomal pathway by Leishmania RNA virus 1. Nature Microbiology, 4(4), 714–723. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-018-0352-y

[3] Barrett, M. P., & Croft, S. L. (2012). Management of trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis. In British Medical Bulletin (Vol. 104, Issue 1, pp. 175–196). https://doi.org/10.1093/bmb/lds031

[4] Brettmann, E. A., Shaik, J. S., Zangger, H., Lye, L. F., Kuhlmann, F. M., Akopyants, N. S., Oschwald, D. M., Owens, K. L., Hickerson, S. M., Ronet, C., Fasel, N., & Beverley, S. M. (2016). Tilting the balance between RNA interference and replication eradicates Leishmania RNA virus 1 and mitigates the inflammatory response. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 113(43), 11998–12005. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1615085113

[5] Cai, G., Myers, K., Hillman, B. I., & Fry, W. E. (2009). A novel virus of the late blight pathogen, Phytophthora infestans, with two RNA segments and a supergroup 1 RNA-dependent RNA polymerase. Virology, 392(1), 52–61. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virol.2009.06.040

[6] Cantanhêde, L. M., da Silva Júnior, C. F., Ito, M. M., Felipin, K. P., Nicolete, R., Salcedo, J. M. V., Porrozzi, R., Cupolillo, E., & Ferreira, R. de G. M. (2015). Further Evidence of an Association between the Presence of Leishmania RNA Virus 1 and the Mucosal Manifestations in Tegumentary Leishmaniasis Patients. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 9(9). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0004079

[7] Chahar, H. S., Bao, X., & Casola, A. (2015). Exosomes and their role in the life cycle and pathogenesis of RNA viruses. In Viruses (Vol. 7, Issue 6, pp. 3204–3225). MDPI AG. https://doi.org/10.3390/v7062770

[8] de Oliveira Ramos Pereira, L., Maretti-Mira, A. C., Rodrigues, K. M., Lima, R. B., de Oliveira-Neto, M. P., Cupolillo, E., Pirmez, C., & de Oliveira, M. P. (2013). Severity of tegumentary leishmaniasis is not exclusively associated with Leishmania RNA virus 1 infection in Brazil. Memorias Do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, 108(5), 665–667. https://doi.org/10.1590/0074-0276108052013021

[9] de Souza, M. M., Manzine, L. R., da Silva, M. V. G., Bettini, J., Portugal, R. V., Cruz, A. K., Arruda, E., & Thiemann, O. H. (2014). An improved purification procedure for Leishmania RNA virus (LRV). In Brazilian Journal of Microbiology (Vol. 45, Issue 2). https://doi.org/10.1590/S1517-83822014000200044

[10] Dreux, M., Garaigorta, U., Boyd, B., Décembre, E., Chung, J., Whitten-Bauer, C., Wieland, S., & Chisari, F. v. (2012). Short-range exosomal transfer of viral RNA from infected cells to plasmacytoid dendritic cells triggers innate immunity. Cell Host and Microbe, 12(4), 558–570. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2012.08.010

[11] Eren, R. O., Reverte, M., Rossi, M., Hartley, M. A., Castiglioni, P., Prevel, F., Martin, R., Desponds, C., Lye, L. F., Drexler, S. K., Reith, W., Beverley, S. M., Ronet, C., & Fasel, N. (2016). Mammalian Innate Immune Response to a Leishmania-Resident RNA Virus Increases Macrophage Survival to Promote Parasite Persistence. Cell Host and Microbe, 20(3), 318–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chom.2016.08.001

[12] Forterre, P. (2010). Defining Life: The Virus Viewpoint. Origins of Life and Evolution of Biospheres, 40(2), 151–160. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11084-010-9194-1

[13] Grybchuk, D., Akopyants, N. S., Kostygov, A. Y., Konovalovas, A., Lye, L. F., Dobson, D. E., Zangger, H., Fasel, N., Butenko, A., Frolov, A. O., Votýpka, J., D’Avila-Levy, C. M., Kulich, P., Moravcová, J., Plevka, P., Rogozin, I. B., Serva, S., Lukeš, J., Beverley, S. M., & Yurchenko, V. (2018). Viral discovery and diversity in trypanosomatid protozoa with a focus on relatives of the human parasite Leishmania. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 115(3), E506–E515. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1717806115

[14] Guilbride, L., Myler, P. J., & Stuart, K. (1992). Distribution and sequence divergence of LRV1 viruses among different Leishmania species. In Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology (Vol. 54, Issue 1). https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-6851(92)90099-6

[15] Hartley, M. A., Drexler, S., Ronet, C., Beverley, S. M., & Fasel, N. (2014). The immunological, environmental, and phylogenetic perpetrators of metastatic leishmaniasis. In Trends in Parasitology (Vol. 30, Issue 8, pp. 412–422). Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pt.2014.05.006

[16] Ives, A., Ronet, C., Prevel, F., Ruzzante, G., Fuertes-Marraco, S., Schutz, F., Zangger, H., Revaz-Breton, M., Lye, L. F., Hickerson, S. M., Beverley, S. M., Acha-Orbea, H., Launois, P., Fasel, N., & Masina, S. (2011). Leishmania RNA virus controls the severity of mucocutaneous leishmaniasis. Science, 331(6018), 775–778. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1199326

[17] Kariyawasam, R., Grewal, J., Lau, R., Purssell, A., Valencia, B. M., Llanos-Cuentas, A., & Boggild, A. K. (2017). Influence of Leishmania RNA Virus 1 on Proinflammatory Biomarker Expression in a Human Macrophage Model of American Tegumentary Leishmaniasis. Journal of Infectious Diseases, 216(7), 877–886. https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jix416

[18] Kariyawasam, R., Lau, R., Valencia, B. M., Llanos-Cuentas, A., & Boggild, A. K. (2020). Leishmania RNA Virus 1 (LRV-1) in leishmania (viannia) braziliensis isolates from Peru: A description of demographic and clinical correlates. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 102(2), 280–285. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.19-0147

[19] Kariyawasam, R., Mukkala, A. N., Lau, R., Valencia, B. M., Llanos-Cuentas, A., & Boggild, A. K. (2019). Virulence factor RNA transcript expression in the Leishmania Viannia subgenus: Influence of species, isolate source, and Leishmania RNA virus-1. Tropical Medicine and Health, 47(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41182-019-0153-x

[20] Maga, J. A., Widmer, G., & LeBowitz, J. H. (1995). Leishmania RNA virus 1-mediated cap-independent translation. In Molecular and Cellular Biology (Vol. 15, Issue 9). https://doi.org/10.1128/mcb.15.9.4884

[21] Mertens, P. (2004). The dsRNA viruses. Virus Research, 101(1), 3–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2003.12.002

[22] Miller, J. H., & Swartzwelder, J. C. (1960). Virus-like Particles in an Entamoeba histolytica Trophozoite. In The Journal of Parasitology (Vol. 46, Issue 4). https://doi.org/10.2307/3275152

[23] Mokni, M. (2019). Cutaneous leishmaniasis. In Annales de Dermatologie et de Venereologie (Vol. 146, Issue 3, pp. 232–246). Elsevier Masson SAS. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annder.2019.02.002

[24] Néris, P. L. N., Caldas, J. P. A., Rodrigues, Y. K. S., Amorim, F. M., Leite, J. A., Rodrigues-Mascarenhas, S., Barbosa-Filho, J. M., Rodrigues, L. C., & Oliveira, M. R. (2013). Neolignan Licarin A presents effect against Leishmania (Leishmania) major associated with immunomodulation in vitro. Experimental Parasitology, 135(2), 307–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exppara.2013.07.007

[25] Olivier, M., & Zamboni, D. S. (2020). Leishmania Viannia guyanensis, LRV1 virus and extracellular vesicles: a dangerous trio influencing the faith of immune response during muco-cutaneous leishmaniasis. In Current Opinion in Immunology (Vol. 66, pp. 108–113). Elsevier Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coi.2020.08.004

[26] Parra-Muñoz, M., Aponte, S., Ovalle-Bracho, C., Saavedra, C. H., & Echeverry, M. C. (2021). detection of leishmania RNA virus in clinical samples from cutaneous leishmaniasis patients varies according to the type of sample. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, 104(1), 233–239. https://doi.org/10.4269/AJTMH.20-0073

[27] Reithinger, R., Dujardin, J. C., Louzir, H., Pirmez, C., Alexander, B., & Brooker, S. (2007). Cutaneous leishmaniasis. In Lancet Infectious Diseases (Vol. 7, Issue 9, pp. 581–596). https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(07)70209-8

[28] Saberi, R., Fakhar, M., Mohebali, M., Anvari, D., & Gholami, S. (2019). Global status of synchronizing Leishmania RNA virus in Leishmania parasites: A systematic review with meta-analysis. In Transboundary and Emerging Diseases (Vol. 66, Issue 6, pp. 2244–2251). Blackwell Publishing Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1111/tbed.13316

[29] Scheffter, S., Widmer, G., & Patterson, J. L. (1994). Complete Sequence of Leishmania RNA Virus 1-4 and Identification of Conserved Sequences. In Virology (Vol. 199, Issue 2, pp. 479–483). https://doi.org/10.1006/viro.1994.1149

[30] Scott, P. (2005). Immunologic memory in cutaneous leishmaniasis. In Cellular Microbiology (Vol. 7, Issue 12, pp. 1707–1713). https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1462-5822.2005.00626.x

[31] Stuart, K. D., Weeks, R., Guilbride, L., & Myler, P. J. (1992). Molecular organization of Leishmania RNA virus 1. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 89(18), 8596–8600. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.89.18.8596

[32] Tang, J., Ochoa, W. F., Sinkovits, R. S., Poulos, B. T., Ghabrial, S. A., Lightner, D. v., Baker, T. S., & Nibert, M. L. (2008). Infectious myonecrosis virus has a totivirus-like, 120-subunit capsid, but with fiber complexes at the fivefold axes. In Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (Vol. 105, Issue 45). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0806724105

[33] Tarr, P. I., Aline, R. F., Smiley, B. L., Scholler, J., Keithly, J., & Stuart, K. (1988). LR1: A candidate RNA virus of Leishmania. In Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (Vol. 85, Issue 24). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.85.24.9572

[34] Tsirigotakis, N., Pavlou, C., Christodoulou, V., Dokianakis, E., Kourouniotis, C., Alten, B., Antoniou, M., Tsirigotakis, N., Christodoulou, V., Poulakakis, N., Antoniou, M., Engel, P., Moran, N. A., Sunter, J., Gull, K., BLUM, J. J., Marayati, B. F., Schal, C., Ponnusamy, L., … Bates, P. A. (2018). Chapter 7 – Reduviid Predators. In Parasites and Vectors (Vol. 3, Issue 1). https://doi.org/%0Ahttp://dx.doi.org/10.1186/s13071-015-1261-z

[35] Walker, P. J., Siddell, S. G., Lefkowitz, E. J., Mushegian, A. R., Dempsey, D. M., Dutilh, B. E., Harrach, B., Harrison, R. L., Hendrickson, R. C., Junglen, S., Knowles, N. J., Kropinski, A. M., Krupovic, M., Kuhn, J. H., Nibert, M., Rubino, L., Sabanadzovic, S., Simmonds, P., Varsani, A., … Davison, A. J. (2019). Changes to virus taxonomy and the International Code of Virus Classification and Nomenclature ratified by the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (2019). Archives of Virology, 164(9), 2417–2429. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00705-019-04306-w

[36] Widmer, G., & Dooley, S. (1995). Phylogenetic analysis of Leishmania RNA virus and leishmania suggests ancient virus-parasite association. In Nucleic Acids Research (Vol. 23, Issue 12). https://doi.org/10.1093/nar/23.12.2300

[37] Widmer, G., & Patterson, J. L. (1991). Genomic structure and RNA polymerase activity in Leishmania virus. In Journal of Virology (Vol. 65, Issue 8). https://doi.org/10.1128/jvi.65.8.4211-4215.1991

[38] Zangger, H., Ronet, C., Desponds, C., Kuhlmann, F. M., Robinson, J., Hartley, M. A., Prevel, F., Castiglioni, P., Pratlong, F., Bastien, P., Müller, N., Parmentier, L., Saravia, N. G., Beverley, S. M., & Fasel, N. (2013). Detection of Leishmania RNA Virus in Leishmania Parasites. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0002006

Cover image