Sismos por Fallas Locales Reportados como Fuertes  en Panamá Central, Panamá

Eduardo Camacho Astigarrabía; Mayubel Alvarado

doi:10.48204/reict.v3n2.4679

Submitted January 24, 2024

Published 2024-01-25

Artículos

Vol. 3 No. 2 (2024): REICIT

Local Faults Earthquakes Reported as Strong in Central Panama, Panama

Eduardo Camacho Astigarrabía ⁺⁻
Mayubel Alvarado ⁺⁻

DOI https://doi.org/10.48204/reict.v3n2.4679

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References

DOI: 10.48204/reict.v3n2.4679

Published: 2024-01-25

How to Cite

Camacho Astigarrabía , E. and Alvarado , M. (2024) “Local Faults Earthquakes Reported as Strong in Central Panama, Panama”, REICIT, 3(2), pp. 95–118. doi: 10.48204/reict.v3n2.4679.

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

Abstract

The Central Panama region is crisscrossed by several active strike-slip or transcurrent faults, which represent a seismic threat to the cities of Panama, Colón, La Chorrera, Arraiján and the Panama Canal. The first earthquake causing damage in Panama City occurred in 1541. The earthquake of May 2, 1621, caused serious damage to masonry structures and originated on the Pedro Miguel fault, which is a of a dextral strike slip fault, which extends from north to south almost parallel to the Panama Canal. Based on data of Modified Mercalli (MM) intensities recorded by the Balboa Heights Panama seismological station (BHP) for surface earthquakes from 1913 to 1976 and by the University of Panama station (UPA), in subsequent years, an equation was developed for the calculation of magnitude Ms from intensity. Likewise, we describe from original sources seismic events since 1547, due to local faults that occurred in the Central Region of Panama and surrounding areas, which were felt as strong (I ?V MM) or caused damage in the Panama Canal Basin.

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References

Acres International Limited (Dappolonia), (1982). Evaluación sismológica del proyecto.
Central Hidroeléctrica Tarazará.
Anderson, C. (1911). Old Panama and Castilla del Oro, Press of Sudwarth Company,
Washington, 558 pp.
Alih, S.C., & Vafaei, M., (2019). Performance of reinforced concrete buildings and wooden structures during the 2015 Mw 6.0 Sabah earthquake in Malaysia, Engineering Failure Analysis,102, 351-368, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2019.04.056.
Archivo General de Indias. Panamá 30, 102 y 104.
Archivo Nacional de Panamá. Estantería 69, Cajón 2, Legajo 32, Tomo XIII D. 260.
Archivo Nacional de Panamá. Librería 69, Cajón 3, Legajo 32, Tomo XIV Doc. 261.
Audiencia de Panamá (1607). Descripción de Panamá y su Provincia, en: Relaciones
Relatos Históricos y Geográficos de Centroamérica, Tomo Vlll, Librería General de Victoriano Suárez, Madrid, 1908, 136-159
Berrío Lem, V. (1991). Nuestra Señora de la Asunción de Panamá: la historia de tres ciudades. inédito).
B., H., P., 1909: Balboa Heights Panama Files, registro de registros sismográficos de 1909.
B., H., P., 1910: Balboa Heights Panama Files, registro de registros sismográficos de 1910.
B., H., P., 1930: Balboa Heights Panama Files, registro de registros sismográficos de 1930.
Blume, J., A., and Associates Research Division (1967). Compilation of Seismic Data: Panama and Adjoining Land and Sea Areas, NVO- 99-22, prepared for the Atlantic Pacific Interoceanic Canal Commission, Contract AT (26-1)-99, 40 pags.
Bourke, J. R., Levin, V., Arroyo, I. G., & Linkimer, L. (2023). Evidence for Caribbean plate subduction in southern Costa Rica. Geology, 51(4), 408-412. https://doi.org/10.1130/G50796.1
Camacho, E., (1991): El catálogo de sismos históricos de la República de Panamá (1516-1990) in J., Tanner editor: Report of the First Technical Workshop Seismic hazard project, February 4-8, Panama City, I. P. G. H., Mexico, 123 pp.
Camacho, E., (2022). Atenuación de intensidades y ondas coda en Panamá Central, (Diapositivas de PowerPoint). XlV Congreso Geológico de América Central, San José, Costa Rica
Camacho E., Hutton, W., Pacheco, J. (2010). A New Look at Evidence for a Wadati Benioff Zone and Active Convergence at the North Panama Deformed Belt. Bull. Seismo. Soc Am. 100, 343-348. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120090204.
Carbajal, F., Ruiz, G., & Schexnayder, C., J. (2005). Quincha Construction in Peru. Pract.
Period. Struct. Des. Constr. 10:56-62: DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0680(2005)10:1(56)
Castillero, E. (1973). El terremoto del día de La Cruz. Revista Lotería 209, 95-97.
Charleston Courier, 1854, 24 de julio. Charleston, South Carolina.
Cowan, H., Machette, M., Haller, K., & Dart, R. (1999). Map and Database of Quaternary Faults and Folds in Panama and Its Offshore Regions, Open File Report 98-779, U. S. Geological Survey.
Daily Picayune (1854), 21 de julio, p2, New Orleans, Louisiana, Estados Unidos de América.
Earth Consultants (2005). Paleoseismic investigarions of the Gatun and Limon faults in Central Panama.(ACP Tender No 43205).
Earth Consultants (2007). Paleoseismic trenching of the Pedro Miguel Fault in Cocoli,
located immediately southwest of the Panama Canal. (ACP Tender No. CDO178690KRP).
El Diario de Panamá (1930). 30 de julio.
El Matutino, (1971), 20 de enero
El Panamá América, (1971); 20 de enero
González, R., Oncken, O., Faccenna, C., Le Breton, E., Bezada, M., & Mora, A. (2023). Kinematics and convergent tectonics of the Northwestern South American plate during the Cenozoic. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 24, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GC010827
Goswami, A., J. Pindell, R. N. Erlich, K. Reuber, and B. W. Horn, (2019). Regional structure and petroleum potential of the North Panama deformed belt: GeoGulf Transactions, v. 69, p. 365–372.
Idham, N. C. (2019). Indonesian Architecture and Earthquake Vulnerability: The Development of Building Safety through the Civilization. MATEC Web of Conferences 280, 01004, https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/20192800 ICSBE 2018
Jorgensen, K. M. (1966). Seismological History of the canal Zone and Panama, Panama Canal Company, Metereological and Hydrographic Branch 12, 12pp., 1map
Kirkpatrik, R., Z., (1920). Earthquakes in Panama up to January 1, 1920, Bull. Seism. Soc. Am. 10, 120-128.
Kirkpatrik, R., Z., (1931).Earthquakes in Panama, The Military Engineer 23(132),
-545.
Kumar, N., Verma, A., & Kumar, S. (2017). Earthquake Resistant Building Construction, International Journal of Innovative Research in Science and Engineering 3(4).
Jarrin, P., Nocquet, J.M., Rolandone, F., Audin, L., Mora-Páez, H., Alvarado, A., Mothes, P., Audemard, F., Villegas-Lanza, J.C., & Cisneros, D. (2023). Continental block motion in the Northern Andes from GPS measurements, Geophysical Journal International, Volume 235, Issue 2, November 2023, Pages 1434–1464, https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggad294
La Crítica (1971), 20 de enero
La Hora (1971); 20 de enero
La Estrella de Panamá (1971); 20 de enero
La Prensa (1915). 26 de enero, ciudad de Panamá, Panamá
Leeds, D., J., (1978). Panama Seismic History, Conferencia Centroamericana de Ingeniería
Sísmica, San Salvador, El Salvador, January 9-12 (unpublished).
Los Angeles Evening Herald (1915). 26 de enero.
Mac Donald, D., F., y W., C., Johnson (1913). Isthmian Earthquakes, The Canal Record 2,
Marshall, J. S., Fisher, D. M., & Gardner, T. W. (2000), Central Costa Rica deformed belt:
Kinematics of diffuse faulting across the western Panama block, Tectonics, 19(3), 468–
, doi:10.1029/1999TC001136.
Morin Couture, A. (2008). Apuntes de Historia de la Iglesia de Panamá, Periodo Colonial, Tomo l, INAC, Editorial Mariano Arosemena, Panamá
New York Daily News, 1854, 11 de julio
New York Daily Tribune, 1849a, 9 de abril.
New York Daily Tribune, 1849b,11 de abril.
New York Municipal Gazette, 1849, 22 de mayo.
Panama on,com (2023). Al hospital oncológico le están llegando los recursos económicos y
recibirá los adicionales que necesite, https://www.panamaon.com/noticias/ salud/99286- al-hospital-oncologico-le-estan-llegando-los-recursos-economicos-y-recibira-los-adicionales-que-necesite.html
Pennington, W., (1981). Subduction of the Eastern Panama Basin and seismotectonics of
Northwestern South America, J. Geophys. Res., 86, 10753-10770.
Poletti E., Vasconcelos, G., & Lourenço, P.B. (2015). Timber frames as an earthquake
resisting system in Portugal. Seismic Retrofitting: Learning from Vernacular Architecture – Correia, Lourenço & Varum (Eds). Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02892-0
Requejo Salcedo, R., (1640). Relación Histórica y Geográfica de la Provincia de Panamá, en: Relaciones Históricas y Geográficas de Centroamérica, Tomo VIII, Librería General de Victoriano Suárez, Madrid, 1908, 311 págs
Rockwell, T. (2022). May 25, 2022. Tectonics and faulting in Central Panamá. (Diapositivas de PowerPoint). Meeting on Seismicity of the Pacific Sector, Metro de Panamá. Panama City, Panama.
Rockwell, T. K., Bennett, R. A., Gath, E., and Franceschi, P. (2010), Unhinging an indenter: A new tectonic model for the internal deformation of Panama, Tectonics, 29, TC4027, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009TC002571.
Rockwell, T., Gath, E. Gonzalez, T., Madden, C., Verdugo, D., Lippincott, C., Dawson, T., Owen, L.A., Fuchs, M., Cadena, A., Williams, P., Weldon, E., Franceschi; P. (2010). Neotectonics and Paleoseismology of the Limón and Pedro Miguel Faults in Panamá: Earthquake Hazard to the Panamá Canal. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 100 (6): 3097–3129 https://doi.org/10.1785/0120090342
Star & Herald, (1873): 16 de octubre.
Star & Herald, (1914): 28 de mayo
Star & Herald, (1930): 8 y 9 de marzo.
Star & Herald, (1936), 7 de mayo.
Sosa, J. y E., Arce (1911). Compendio de la Historia de Panamá, Casa Editorial del "Diario
de Panamá", Morales y Rodríguez, 322 págs.
Sosa, J. (1969) Historia de la Ciudad de Panamá La Vieja, Revista Lotería 165.
The Canal Record (1909). 1 de septiembre
The Floridian, 1854, 29 de Julio, Tallahassee.
The New York Times (1909). 31 de Agosto
The New York Times (1930). 31 de julio
The New York Times (1931). 10 de abril.
The Washington Post (1909b), 31 de agosto.
The Washington Post (1909a), 13 de septiembre
Tosi, P., Sbarra, P, & De Rubeis, V. (2012). Earthquake sound perception. Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L24301, https://doi:10.1029/2012GL054382.
Víquez, V & Camacho, E. (1993). El terremoto de Panamá La Vieja del 2 de mayo de 1621: un sismo intraplaca. Boletín de Vulcanología 3, 13-20.
Víquez, V., & Toral, J. (1987). Sismicidad histórica sentida en el Istmo de Panamá. Revista
Geofisica 27, 135-165.
?ahin Güçhan, N., (2007). Observations on earthquake resistance of traditional timber-framed houses in Turkey, Building and Environment, 42,(2), 840-851, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.09.027.
Sadek, F., Mohraz, B., Taylor, A., & Chung, R. (1996). Passive Energy Dissipation Devices for Seismic Applications. Building and Fire Research Laboratory National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, https://www.nist.gov/publications/passive-energy-dissipation-devices-seismic-applications
Stewart. R.H., Stewart, J.L., & Woodring. W.P. (1980). Geologic map of the Panama Canal and vicinity, Republic of Panama, U. S. Geol. Survey.
Westbrook, G.K., Hardy, N.C., Heath, R.P. (1995). Structure and tectonics of the Panama-Nazca plate boundary, in Geologic and Tectonic Development of the Caribbean Plate Boundary in Southern Central America, GSA Special Paper, Paul Mann, editor, https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE295-p91
William Lettis y asociados, Inc. (2007). Paleoseismic evaluation of the Pedro Miguel, Río Gatún and Limón faults. Informe a la Autoridad del Canal de Panamá. (ACP contract SAA-187934-KRP).
Wessel, P., and Smith W. H. F. (1998). New, improved version of Generic Mapping Tools released, EOS Trans. AGU, 79(47), p. 579. doi:10.1029/98EO00426.
Woodring, W. P. (1957). Geology and paleontology of Canal Zone and adjoining parts of Panama: geology and description of tertiary mollusks (gastropods: trochidae to turritellidae). Professional Paper 306-A, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp306A

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[1] Acres International Limited (Dappolonia), (1982). Evaluación sismológica del proyecto.

[2] Central Hidroeléctrica Tarazará.

[3] Anderson, C. (1911). Old Panama and Castilla del Oro, Press of Sudwarth Company,

[4] Washington, 558 pp.

[5] Alih, S.C., & Vafaei, M., (2019). Performance of reinforced concrete buildings and wooden structures during the 2015 Mw 6.0 Sabah earthquake in Malaysia, Engineering Failure Analysis,102, 351-368, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engfailanal.2019.04.056.

[6] Archivo General de Indias. Panamá 30, 102 y 104.

[7] Archivo Nacional de Panamá. Estantería 69, Cajón 2, Legajo 32, Tomo XIII D. 260.

[8] Archivo Nacional de Panamá. Librería 69, Cajón 3, Legajo 32, Tomo XIV Doc. 261.

[9] Audiencia de Panamá (1607). Descripción de Panamá y su Provincia, en: Relaciones

[10] Relatos Históricos y Geográficos de Centroamérica, Tomo Vlll, Librería General de Victoriano Suárez, Madrid, 1908, 136-159

[11] Berrío Lem, V. (1991). Nuestra Señora de la Asunción de Panamá: la historia de tres ciudades. inédito).

[12] B., H., P., 1909: Balboa Heights Panama Files, registro de registros sismográficos de 1909.

[13] B., H., P., 1910: Balboa Heights Panama Files, registro de registros sismográficos de 1910.

[14] B., H., P., 1930: Balboa Heights Panama Files, registro de registros sismográficos de 1930.

[15] Blume, J., A., and Associates Research Division (1967). Compilation of Seismic Data: Panama and Adjoining Land and Sea Areas, NVO- 99-22, prepared for the Atlantic Pacific Interoceanic Canal Commission, Contract AT (26-1)-99, 40 pags.

[16] Bourke, J. R., Levin, V., Arroyo, I. G., & Linkimer, L. (2023). Evidence for Caribbean plate subduction in southern Costa Rica. Geology, 51(4), 408-412. https://doi.org/10.1130/G50796.1

[17] Camacho, E., (1991): El catálogo de sismos históricos de la República de Panamá (1516-1990) in J., Tanner editor: Report of the First Technical Workshop Seismic hazard project, February 4-8, Panama City, I. P. G. H., Mexico, 123 pp.

[18] Camacho, E., (2022). Atenuación de intensidades y ondas coda en Panamá Central, (Diapositivas de PowerPoint). XlV Congreso Geológico de América Central, San José, Costa Rica

[19] Camacho E., Hutton, W., Pacheco, J. (2010). A New Look at Evidence for a Wadati Benioff Zone and Active Convergence at the North Panama Deformed Belt. Bull. Seismo. Soc Am. 100, 343-348. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120090204.

[20] Carbajal, F., Ruiz, G., & Schexnayder, C., J. (2005). Quincha Construction in Peru. Pract.

[21] Period. Struct. Des. Constr. 10:56-62: DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)1084-0680(2005)10:1(56)

[22] Castillero, E. (1973). El terremoto del día de La Cruz. Revista Lotería 209, 95-97.

[23] Charleston Courier, 1854, 24 de julio. Charleston, South Carolina.

[24] Cowan, H., Machette, M., Haller, K., & Dart, R. (1999). Map and Database of Quaternary Faults and Folds in Panama and Its Offshore Regions, Open File Report 98-779, U. S. Geological Survey.

[25] Daily Picayune (1854), 21 de julio, p2, New Orleans, Louisiana, Estados Unidos de América.

[26] Earth Consultants (2005). Paleoseismic investigarions of the Gatun and Limon faults in Central Panama.(ACP Tender No 43205).

[27] Earth Consultants (2007). Paleoseismic trenching of the Pedro Miguel Fault in Cocoli,

[28] located immediately southwest of the Panama Canal. (ACP Tender No. CDO178690KRP).

[29] El Diario de Panamá (1930). 30 de julio.

[30] El Matutino, (1971), 20 de enero

[31] El Panamá América, (1971); 20 de enero

[32] González, R., Oncken, O., Faccenna, C., Le Breton, E., Bezada, M., & Mora, A. (2023). Kinematics and convergent tectonics of the Northwestern South American plate during the Cenozoic. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems, 24, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022GC010827

[33] Goswami, A., J. Pindell, R. N. Erlich, K. Reuber, and B. W. Horn, (2019). Regional structure and petroleum potential of the North Panama deformed belt: GeoGulf Transactions, v. 69, p. 365–372.

[34] Idham, N. C. (2019). Indonesian Architecture and Earthquake Vulnerability: The Development of Building Safety through the Civilization. MATEC Web of Conferences 280, 01004, https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/20192800 ICSBE 2018

[35] Jorgensen, K. M. (1966). Seismological History of the canal Zone and Panama, Panama Canal Company, Metereological and Hydrographic Branch 12, 12pp., 1map

[36] Kirkpatrik, R., Z., (1920). Earthquakes in Panama up to January 1, 1920, Bull. Seism. Soc. Am. 10, 120-128.

[37] Kirkpatrik, R., Z., (1931).Earthquakes in Panama, The Military Engineer 23(132),

[38] -545.

[39] Kumar, N., Verma, A., & Kumar, S. (2017). Earthquake Resistant Building Construction, International Journal of Innovative Research in Science and Engineering 3(4).

[40] Jarrin, P., Nocquet, J.M., Rolandone, F., Audin, L., Mora-Páez, H., Alvarado, A., Mothes, P., Audemard, F., Villegas-Lanza, J.C., & Cisneros, D. (2023). Continental block motion in the Northern Andes from GPS measurements, Geophysical Journal International, Volume 235, Issue 2, November 2023, Pages 1434–1464, https://doi.org/10.1093/gji/ggad294

[41] La Crítica (1971), 20 de enero

[42] La Hora (1971); 20 de enero

[43] La Estrella de Panamá (1971); 20 de enero

[44] La Prensa (1915). 26 de enero, ciudad de Panamá, Panamá

[45] Leeds, D., J., (1978). Panama Seismic History, Conferencia Centroamericana de Ingeniería

[46] Sísmica, San Salvador, El Salvador, January 9-12 (unpublished).

[47] Los Angeles Evening Herald (1915). 26 de enero.

[48] Mac Donald, D., F., y W., C., Johnson (1913). Isthmian Earthquakes, The Canal Record 2,

[49] Marshall, J. S., Fisher, D. M., & Gardner, T. W. (2000), Central Costa Rica deformed belt:

[50] Kinematics of diffuse faulting across the western Panama block, Tectonics, 19(3), 468–

[51] , doi:10.1029/1999TC001136.

[52] Morin Couture, A. (2008). Apuntes de Historia de la Iglesia de Panamá, Periodo Colonial, Tomo l, INAC, Editorial Mariano Arosemena, Panamá

[53] New York Daily News, 1854, 11 de julio

[54] New York Daily Tribune, 1849a, 9 de abril.

[55] New York Daily Tribune, 1849b,11 de abril.

[56] New York Municipal Gazette, 1849, 22 de mayo.

[57] Panama on,com (2023). Al hospital oncológico le están llegando los recursos económicos y

[58] recibirá los adicionales que necesite, https://www.panamaon.com/noticias/ salud/99286- al-hospital-oncologico-le-estan-llegando-los-recursos-economicos-y-recibira-los-adicionales-que-necesite.html

[59] Pennington, W., (1981). Subduction of the Eastern Panama Basin and seismotectonics of

[60] Northwestern South America, J. Geophys. Res., 86, 10753-10770.

[61] Poletti E., Vasconcelos, G., & Lourenço, P.B. (2015). Timber frames as an earthquake

[62] resisting system in Portugal. Seismic Retrofitting: Learning from Vernacular Architecture – Correia, Lourenço & Varum (Eds). Taylor & Francis Group, London, ISBN 978-1-138-02892-0

[63] Requejo Salcedo, R., (1640). Relación Histórica y Geográfica de la Provincia de Panamá, en: Relaciones Históricas y Geográficas de Centroamérica, Tomo VIII, Librería General de Victoriano Suárez, Madrid, 1908, 311 págs

[64] Rockwell, T. (2022). May 25, 2022. Tectonics and faulting in Central Panamá. (Diapositivas de PowerPoint). Meeting on Seismicity of the Pacific Sector, Metro de Panamá. Panama City, Panama.

[65] Rockwell, T. K., Bennett, R. A., Gath, E., and Franceschi, P. (2010), Unhinging an indenter: A new tectonic model for the internal deformation of Panama, Tectonics, 29, TC4027, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009TC002571.

[66] Rockwell, T., Gath, E. Gonzalez, T., Madden, C., Verdugo, D., Lippincott, C., Dawson, T., Owen, L.A., Fuchs, M., Cadena, A., Williams, P., Weldon, E., Franceschi; P. (2010). Neotectonics and Paleoseismology of the Limón and Pedro Miguel Faults in Panamá: Earthquake Hazard to the Panamá Canal. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America 100 (6): 3097–3129 https://doi.org/10.1785/0120090342

[67] Star & Herald, (1873): 16 de octubre.

[68] Star & Herald, (1914): 28 de mayo

[69] Star & Herald, (1930): 8 y 9 de marzo.

[70] Star & Herald, (1936), 7 de mayo.

[71] Sosa, J. y E., Arce (1911). Compendio de la Historia de Panamá, Casa Editorial del "Diario

[72] de Panamá", Morales y Rodríguez, 322 págs.

[73] Sosa, J. (1969) Historia de la Ciudad de Panamá La Vieja, Revista Lotería 165.

[74] The Canal Record (1909). 1 de septiembre

[75] The Floridian, 1854, 29 de Julio, Tallahassee.

[76] The New York Times (1909). 31 de Agosto

[77] The New York Times (1930). 31 de julio

[78] The New York Times (1931). 10 de abril.

[79] The Washington Post (1909b), 31 de agosto.

[80] The Washington Post (1909a), 13 de septiembre

[81] Tosi, P., Sbarra, P, & De Rubeis, V. (2012). Earthquake sound perception. Geophys. Res. Lett., 39, L24301, https://doi:10.1029/2012GL054382.

[82] Víquez, V & Camacho, E. (1993). El terremoto de Panamá La Vieja del 2 de mayo de 1621: un sismo intraplaca. Boletín de Vulcanología 3, 13-20.

[83] Víquez, V., & Toral, J. (1987). Sismicidad histórica sentida en el Istmo de Panamá. Revista

[84] Geofisica 27, 135-165.

[85] ?ahin Güçhan, N., (2007). Observations on earthquake resistance of traditional timber-framed houses in Turkey, Building and Environment, 42,(2), 840-851, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2005.09.027.

[86] Sadek, F., Mohraz, B., Taylor, A., & Chung, R. (1996). Passive Energy Dissipation Devices for Seismic Applications. Building and Fire Research Laboratory National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, https://www.nist.gov/publications/passive-energy-dissipation-devices-seismic-applications

[87] Stewart. R.H., Stewart, J.L., & Woodring. W.P. (1980). Geologic map of the Panama Canal and vicinity, Republic of Panama, U. S. Geol. Survey.

[88] Westbrook, G.K., Hardy, N.C., Heath, R.P. (1995). Structure and tectonics of the Panama-Nazca plate boundary, in Geologic and Tectonic Development of the Caribbean Plate Boundary in Southern Central America, GSA Special Paper, Paul Mann, editor, https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE295-p91

[89] William Lettis y asociados, Inc. (2007). Paleoseismic evaluation of the Pedro Miguel, Río Gatún and Limón faults. Informe a la Autoridad del Canal de Panamá. (ACP contract SAA-187934-KRP).

[90] Wessel, P., and Smith W. H. F. (1998). New, improved version of Generic Mapping Tools released, EOS Trans. AGU, 79(47), p. 579. doi:10.1029/98EO00426.

[91] Woodring, W. P. (1957). Geology and paleontology of Canal Zone and adjoining parts of Panama: geology and description of tertiary mollusks (gastropods: trochidae to turritellidae). Professional Paper 306-A, https://doi.org/10.3133/pp306A

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