The Last Generation? Intergenerational Transmission of English Creole in Urban Colon

Daniel Cole

doi:10.48204/societas.v28n2.9971

Submitted May 16, 2026

Published 2026-07-14

Artículos de Investigación

Vol. 28 No. 2 (2026): Societas

The Last Generation? Intergenerational Transmission of English Creole in Urban Colon

Daniel Cole⁺⁻

DOI https://doi.org/10.48204/societas.v28n2.9971

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References

DOI: 10.48204/societas.v28n2.9971

Published: 2026-07-14

How to Cite

Cole, D. (2026). The Last Generation? Intergenerational Transmission of English Creole in Urban Colon. Societas, 28(2), 68–97. https://doi.org/10.48204/societas.v28n2.9971

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

Abstract

This study analyzes the sociolinguistic vitality and patterns of intergenerational transmission of Creole English in the urban setting of Colón Province, Panama. Using a qualitative approach with an ethnographic design, it examines the social relevance, linguistic ideologies, and identity values associated with this variant today. The sample was formed through purposive sampling of 120 participants from 40 multigenerational households, structured into three strata: grandparents (G1), parents (G2), and youth (G3). Data collection was conducted through the triangulation of semi-structured interviews, detailed field notes, and audio recordings in natural communicative settings; the corpus was examined using inductive thematic analysis. The results reveal a critical decline in the intergenerational transmission of Creole English: although younger generations demonstrate receptive language proficiency, their active and fluent use of the language is significantly lower compared to that of their predecessors. Despite this displacement, participants express a strong emotional and symbolic bond with the language, classifying it as a fundamental pillar of Afro-Panamanian identity. Likewise, systemic and structural pressures in the workplace and school settings, exacerbated by the hegemony of Spanish and institutional stigmatization, were identified as the main drivers of linguistic displacement. It is concluded that there is an urgent need to design and implement synergistic language revitalization programs that actively involve families, educational institutions, and cultural centers to safeguard Creole English as a living intangible community heritage.

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References

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Appel, R., & Muysken, P. (2025). Language contact and bilingualism (2nd ed.).
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Pittsburgh Press.
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contact, and change. Palgrave Macmillan.
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critical practices. Multilingual Matters.
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–88.
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Routledge.
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ed.). University of Chicago Press.
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Kasstan, B., Auer, A., & Salmons, J. (2018). Heritage speakers and sociolinguistic
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University Press.
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Cambridge University Press.
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The challenging opportunity. Palgrave Macmillan.
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(2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed
method implementation research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and
Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 533–544.
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Society, 36(1), 23–47.
Putnam, L. (2017). Radical moves: Caribbean migrants and the politics of race in
the jazz age. University of North Carolina Press.
Rickford, J. R. (1999). African American vernacular English: Features, evolution,
educational implications. Blackwell.
Saldaña, J. (2021). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (4th ed.). Sage.
Saville-Troike, M., & Blackwell, A. (2012). Introducing second language acquisition (2nd
ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Siegel, J. (2006). Language ideologies and the education of speakers of marginalized
language varieties. Companion to Language and Linguistics.
Sharma, D. (2011). Style repertoire and social change in British Asian English.
Journal of Sociolinguistics, 15(4), 464–492.Sharma, D. (2021). Language
and identity across generations. Routledge.
Snell, J., Shaw, S., & Copland, F. (2015). Linguistic ethnography: Interdisciplinary
explorations. Palgrave Macmillan.
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Wiley-Blackwell.
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Schieffelin, K. A. Woolard, & P. V. Kroskrity (Eds.), Language ideologies:
Practice and theory (pp. 3–47). Oxford University Press.
Woolard, K. A., & Schieffelin, B. B. (1994). Language ideology. Annual Review of
Anthropology, 23, 55–82.
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Haiti, and Trinidad and Tobago. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
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Blackwell.

Keywords

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Content Top

[1] Albury, N. J. (2020). Language ideology and minority language revival in the 21st century. Routledge.

[2] Appel, R., & Muysken, P. (2025). Language contact and bilingualism (2nd ed.).

[3] Cambridge University Press.

[4] Baptiste, S. (2020). Afro-Caribbean linguistic heritage and identity in Panama. University of the West Indies Press.

[5] Bartens, A. (2003). Caribbean creoles: A practical guide. Helmut Buske Verlag.

[6] Blommaert, J., & Rampton, B. (2016). Language and superdiversity. Routledge.

[7] Bokhorst-Heng, W., & Silver, R. E. (2017). Rethinking language shift: The politics of

[8] language maintenance in Singapore. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 21(2), 213–231.

[9] Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative

[10] Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101.

[11] https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

[12] Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Thematic analysis: A practical guide. Sage.

[13] Bucholtz, M., & Hall, K. (2005). Identity and interaction: A sociocultural linguistic

[14] approach. Discourse Studies, 7(4–5), https://doi.org/10.1177/1461445605054407

[15] Conniff, M. (2012). Black labor on a white canal: Panama, 1904–1981. University of

[16] Pittsburgh Press.

[17] Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing

[18] among five approaches (4th ed.). Sage.

[19] Cumberbatch, M., & Bent, J. (2021). Creole languages in the Caribbean: Variation,

[20] contact, and change. Palgrave Macmillan.

[21] Darvin, R., & Norton, B. (2019). Identity, investment, and multilingualism: Theories and

[22] critical practices. Multilingual Matters.

[23] DeGraff, M. (2005). Linguists’ most dangerous myth: The fallacy of Creole

[24] exceptionalism. Language in Society, 34(4), 533–591.

[25] Denzin, N. K. (2012). Triangulation 2.0. Journal of Mixed Methods Research,6(2),

[26] –88.

[27] Deumert, A. (2018). Sociolinguistics and mobility: People, language, and space.

[28] Routledge.

[29] Dorian, N. C. (1981). Language death: The life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect.

[30] University of Pennsylvania Press.

[31] Eckert, P. (2012). Three waves of variation study: The emergence of meaning in the

[32] study of sociolinguistic variation. Annual Review of Anthropology, 41, 87–100.

[33] Emerson, R. M., Fretz, R. I., & Shaw, L. L. (2011). Writing ethnographic fieldnotes (2nd

[34] ed.). University of Chicago Press.

[35] Fishman, J. A. (1991). Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical foundations

[36] of assistance to threatened languages. Multilingual Matters.

[37] Flick, U. (2018). An introduction to qualitative research (6th ed.). Sage.

[38] Flores, N., & Rosa, J. (2020). Undoing appropriateness: Raciolinguistic ideologies and

[39] language teaching. Multilingual Matters.

[40] García, O., Flores, N., & Woodley, H. (2021). Translanguaging and education. Palgrave

[41] Macmillan.

[42] Garrett, P. (2005). What a language is good for: Language socialization, language shift

[43] and the persistence of code-specific norms. Language in Society, 34(3), 327–

[44] Grenoble, L. A. (2021). Language ecology and endangerment. Cambridge University

[45] Press.

[46] Grenoble, L. A., & Whaley, L. J. (2006). Saving languages: An introduction to language

[47] revitalization. Cambridge University Press.

[48] Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (2019). Ethnography: Principles in practice (4th ed.).

[49] Routledge.

[50] Heller, M., & Duchêne, A. (2012). Pride and profit: Changing discourses of language,

[51] capital and nation-state. In A. Duchêne & M. Heller (Eds.), Language in late

[52] capitalism: Pride and profit (pp. 1–21). Routledge.

[53] Holm, J. (1989). Pidgins and creoles: Vol. II. Reference survey. Cambridge University

[54] Press.

[55] Holm, J. (2000). An introduction to pidgins and creoles. Cambridge University Press.

[56] Irvine, J. T., & Gal, S. (2000). Language ideology and linguistic differentiation. In P.

[57] Kroskrity (Ed.), Regimes of language: Ideologies, polities, and identities (pp. 35–

[58] . School of American Research Press.

[59] Johnson, S. (2018). Language and the economy: Dynamics of change in Oulu.

[60] Routledge.

[61] Kasstan, B. (2017). New speakers and language revitalization. Language

[62] Documentation and Conservation, 11, 151–179.

[63] Kasstan, B., Auer, A., & Salmons, J. (2018). Heritage speakers and sociolinguistic

[64] King, K. A. (2001). Language revitalization processes and prospects: Quichua in the

[65] Ecuadorian Andes. Multilingual Matters.

[66] Kircher, R., & Zipp, L. (2023). Language ideologies and multilingual realities. Cambridge

[67] University Press.

[68] Kroskrity, P. V. (2021). Language ideologies: Practice and theory. Oxford University

[69] Press.

[70] Kroskrity, P. V., & Field, M. C. (2022). Engaged humanities and minority language

[71] revitalization. University of Arizona Press.

[72] Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2015). Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative research

[73] interviewing (3rd ed.). Sage.

[74] Lipski, J. M. (2005). A history of Afro-Hispanic language: Five centuries, five continents.

[75] Cambridge University Press.

[76] Meyerhoff, M., & Walker, J. A. (2013). Bequia talk: Creole variation and change in the

[77] Caribbean. Routledge.

[78] Migge, B. (2013). Language and social identities in the Caribbean. In B. Migge & I.

[79] Léglise (Eds.), Exploring language in a multilingual context (pp. 1–28).

[80] Cambridge University Press.

[81] Migge, B., & Léglise, I. (2013). Exploring language in a multilingual context: Variation,

[82] interaction and ideology in language documentation. Cambridge University

[83] Press.

[84] Milroy, J., & Milroy, L. (1992). Social network and social class: Toward an integrated

[85] sociolinguistic model. Language in Society, 21(1), 1–26.

[86] Milroy, L., & Gordon, M. (2003). Sociolinguistics: Method and interpretation. Blackwell.

[87] Mufwene, S. S. (2020). Language vitality: The role of economics and globalization.

[88] Routledge.

[89] Mufwene, S. S. (2001). The ecology of language evolution. Cambridge University Press.

[90] O’Rourke, B., Pujolar, J., & Ramallo, F. (2015). New speakers of minority languages:

[91] The challenging opportunity. Palgrave Macmillan.

[92] Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K.

[93] (2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed

[94] method implementation research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and

[95] Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 533–544.

[96] Patrick, P. L. (2007). The Jamaican Creole continuum and language rights. Language in

[97] Society, 36(1), 23–47.

[98] Putnam, L. (2017). Radical moves: Caribbean migrants and the politics of race in

[99] the jazz age. University of North Carolina Press.

[100] Rickford, J. R. (1999). African American vernacular English: Features, evolution,

[101] educational implications. Blackwell.

[102] Saldaña, J. (2021). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (4th ed.). Sage.

[103] Saville-Troike, M., & Blackwell, A. (2012). Introducing second language acquisition (2nd

[104] ed.). Cambridge University Press.

[105] Siegel, J. (2006). Language ideologies and the education of speakers of marginalized

[106] language varieties. Companion to Language and Linguistics.

[107] Sharma, D. (2011). Style repertoire and social change in British Asian English.

[108] Journal of Sociolinguistics, 15(4), 464–492.Sharma, D. (2021). Language

[109] and identity across generations. Routledge.

[110] Snell, J., Shaw, S., & Copland, F. (2015). Linguistic ethnography: Interdisciplinary

[111] explorations. Palgrave Macmillan.

[112] Wade, P. (2017). Race and ethnicity in Latin America (2nd ed.). Pluto Press.

[113] Wardhaugh, R., & Fuller, J. M. (2021). An introduction to sociolinguistics (8th ed.).

[114] Wiley-Blackwell.

[115] Winford, D. (2003). An introduction to contact linguistics. Wiley-Blackwell.

[116] Woolard, K. A. (1998). Introduction: Language ideology as a field of inquiry. In B. B.

[117] Schieffelin, K. A. Woolard, & P. V. Kroskrity (Eds.), Language ideologies:

[118] Practice and theory (pp. 3–47). Oxford University Press.

[119] Woolard, K. A., & Schieffelin, B. B. (1994). Language ideology. Annual Review of

[120] Anthropology, 23, 55–82.

[121] Youssef, V. (2002). Issues of bilingual education in the Caribbean: The cases of

[122] Haiti, and Trinidad and Tobago. International Journal of Bilingual Education and

[123] Bilingualism, 5(2), 182–193.

[124] Zentella, A. C. (1997). Growing up bilingual: Puerto Rican children in New York.

[125] Blackwell.

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