The Last Generation? Intergenerational Transmission of English Creole in Urban Colon

DANIEL COLE

doi:10.48204/societas.v28n2.9971

Enviado mayo 16, 2026

Publicado 2026-07-14

Artículos de Investigación

Vol. 28 Núm. 2 (2026): Societas

¿La Última Generación? Transmisión intergeneracional del inglés criollo en la provincia de Colón

DANIEL COLE⁺⁻

DOI https://doi.org/10.48204/societas.v28n2.9971

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DOI: 10.48204/societas.v28n2.9971

Publicado: 2026-07-14

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COLE, D. (2026). ¿La Última Generación? Transmisión intergeneracional del inglés criollo en la provincia de Colón. Societas, 28(2), 68–97. https://doi.org/10.48204/societas.v28n2.9971

Derechos de autor 2026 Societas

Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución-NoComercial-CompartirIgual 4.0.

Resumen

Este estudio analiza la vitalidad sociolingüística y los patrones de transmisión intergeneracional del inglés criollo en el entorno urbano de la provincia de Colón, Panamá. A través de un enfoque cualitativo con diseño etnográfico, se examina la relevancia social, las ideologías lingüísticas y los valores identitarios asociados a esta variante en la actualidad. La muestra se conformó mediante un muestreo intencional de 120 participantes pertenecientes a 40 hogares multigeneracionales, estructurados en tres estratos: abuelos (G1), padres (G2) y jóvenes (G3). La recolección de datos se realizó mediante la triangulación de entrevistas semiestructuradas, notas de campo detalladas y grabaciones de audio en entornos comunicativos naturales; el corpus fue examinado mediante análisis temático inductivo. Los resultados revelan un declive crítico en la transmisión intergeneracional del inglés criollo: aunque las generaciones más jóvenes demuestran una competencia lingüística receptiva, su uso activo y fluido es significativamente menor en comparación con sus predecesores. Pese a este desplazamiento, los participantes manifiestan un fuerte vínculo afectivo y simbólico con la lengua, catalogándola como un pilar fundamental de la identidad afro-panameña. Asimismo, se identificaron presiones sistémicas y estructurales en los ámbitos laboral y escolar, potenciadas por la hegemonía del español y la estigmatización institucional, como los principales vectores del desplazamiento lingüístico. Se concluye que existe una necesidad imperativa de diseñar e implementar programas de revitalización lingüística sinérgicos que involucren activamente a las familias, las instituciones educativas y los centros culturales para salvaguardar el inglés criollo como patrimonio comunitario inmaterial vivo.

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Albury, N. J. (2020). Language ideology and minority language revival in the 21st century. Routledge.
Appel, R., & Muysken, P. (2025). Language contact and bilingualism (2nd ed.).
Cambridge University Press.
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Bokhorst-Heng, W., & Silver, R. E. (2017). Rethinking language shift: The politics of
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Pittsburgh Press.
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among five approaches (4th ed.). Sage.
Cumberbatch, M., & Bent, J. (2021). Creole languages in the Caribbean: Variation,
contact, and change. Palgrave Macmillan.
Darvin, R., & Norton, B. (2019). Identity, investment, and multilingualism: Theories and
critical practices. Multilingual Matters.
DeGraff, M. (2005). Linguists’ most dangerous myth: The fallacy of Creole
exceptionalism. Language in Society, 34(4), 533–591.
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–88.
Deumert, A. (2018). Sociolinguistics and mobility: People, language, and space.
Routledge.
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University of Pennsylvania Press.
Eckert, P. (2012). Three waves of variation study: The emergence of meaning in the
study of sociolinguistic variation. Annual Review of Anthropology, 41, 87–100.
Emerson, R. M., Fretz, R. I., & Shaw, L. L. (2011). Writing ethnographic fieldnotes (2nd
ed.). University of Chicago Press.
Fishman, J. A. (1991). Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical foundations
of assistance to threatened languages. Multilingual Matters.
Flick, U. (2018). An introduction to qualitative research (6th ed.). Sage.
Flores, N., & Rosa, J. (2020). Undoing appropriateness: Raciolinguistic ideologies and
language teaching. Multilingual Matters.
García, O., Flores, N., & Woodley, H. (2021). Translanguaging and education. Palgrave
Macmillan.
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Press.
Grenoble, L. A., & Whaley, L. J. (2006). Saving languages: An introduction to language
revitalization. Cambridge University Press.
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Routledge.
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capitalism: Pride and profit (pp. 1–21). Routledge.
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Press.
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Kroskrity (Ed.), Regimes of language: Ideologies, polities, and identities (pp. 35–
. School of American Research Press.
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Routledge.
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Kasstan, B., Auer, A., & Salmons, J. (2018). Heritage speakers and sociolinguistic
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Ecuadorian Andes. Multilingual Matters.
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University Press.
Kroskrity, P. V. (2021). Language ideologies: Practice and theory. Oxford University
Press.
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revitalization. University of Arizona Press.
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interviewing (3rd ed.). Sage.
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Cambridge University Press.
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Caribbean. Routledge.
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interaction and ideology in language documentation. Cambridge University
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sociolinguistic model. Language in Society, 21(1), 1–26.
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Routledge.
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The challenging opportunity. Palgrave Macmillan.
Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K.
(2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed
method implementation research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and
Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 533–544.
Patrick, P. L. (2007). The Jamaican Creole continuum and language rights. Language in
Society, 36(1), 23–47.
Putnam, L. (2017). Radical moves: Caribbean migrants and the politics of race in
the jazz age. University of North Carolina Press.
Rickford, J. R. (1999). African American vernacular English: Features, evolution,
educational implications. Blackwell.
Saldaña, J. (2021). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (4th ed.). Sage.
Saville-Troike, M., & Blackwell, A. (2012). Introducing second language acquisition (2nd
ed.). Cambridge University Press.
Siegel, J. (2006). Language ideologies and the education of speakers of marginalized
language varieties. Companion to Language and Linguistics.
Sharma, D. (2011). Style repertoire and social change in British Asian English.
Journal of Sociolinguistics, 15(4), 464–492.Sharma, D. (2021). Language
and identity across generations. Routledge.
Snell, J., Shaw, S., & Copland, F. (2015). Linguistic ethnography: Interdisciplinary
explorations. Palgrave Macmillan.
Wade, P. (2017). Race and ethnicity in Latin America (2nd ed.). Pluto Press.
Wardhaugh, R., & Fuller, J. M. (2021). An introduction to sociolinguistics (8th ed.).
Wiley-Blackwell.
Winford, D. (2003). An introduction to contact linguistics. Wiley-Blackwell.
Woolard, K. A. (1998). Introduction: Language ideology as a field of inquiry. In B. B.
Schieffelin, K. A. Woolard, & P. V. Kroskrity (Eds.), Language ideologies:
Practice and theory (pp. 3–47). Oxford University Press.
Woolard, K. A., & Schieffelin, B. B. (1994). Language ideology. Annual Review of
Anthropology, 23, 55–82.
Youssef, V. (2002). Issues of bilingual education in the Caribbean: The cases of
Haiti, and Trinidad and Tobago. International Journal of Bilingual Education and
Bilingualism, 5(2), 182–193.
Zentella, A. C. (1997). Growing up bilingual: Puerto Rican children in New York.
Blackwell.

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Content Top

[1] Albury, N. J. (2020). Language ideology and minority language revival in the 21st century. Routledge.

[2] Appel, R., & Muysken, P. (2025). Language contact and bilingualism (2nd ed.).

[3] Cambridge University Press.

[4] Baptiste, S. (2020). Afro-Caribbean linguistic heritage and identity in Panama. University of the West Indies Press.

[5] Bartens, A. (2003). Caribbean creoles: A practical guide. Helmut Buske Verlag.

[6] Blommaert, J., & Rampton, B. (2016). Language and superdiversity. Routledge.

[7] Bokhorst-Heng, W., & Silver, R. E. (2017). Rethinking language shift: The politics of

[8] language maintenance in Singapore. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 21(2), 213–231.

[9] Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative

[10] Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101.

[11] https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

[12] Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Thematic analysis: A practical guide. Sage.

[13] Bucholtz, M., & Hall, K. (2005). Identity and interaction: A sociocultural linguistic

[14] approach. Discourse Studies, 7(4–5), https://doi.org/10.1177/1461445605054407

[15] Conniff, M. (2012). Black labor on a white canal: Panama, 1904–1981. University of

[16] Pittsburgh Press.

[17] Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2018). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing

[18] among five approaches (4th ed.). Sage.

[19] Cumberbatch, M., & Bent, J. (2021). Creole languages in the Caribbean: Variation,

[20] contact, and change. Palgrave Macmillan.

[21] Darvin, R., & Norton, B. (2019). Identity, investment, and multilingualism: Theories and

[22] critical practices. Multilingual Matters.

[23] DeGraff, M. (2005). Linguists’ most dangerous myth: The fallacy of Creole

[24] exceptionalism. Language in Society, 34(4), 533–591.

[25] Denzin, N. K. (2012). Triangulation 2.0. Journal of Mixed Methods Research,6(2),

[26] –88.

[27] Deumert, A. (2018). Sociolinguistics and mobility: People, language, and space.

[28] Routledge.

[29] Dorian, N. C. (1981). Language death: The life cycle of a Scottish Gaelic dialect.

[30] University of Pennsylvania Press.

[31] Eckert, P. (2012). Three waves of variation study: The emergence of meaning in the

[32] study of sociolinguistic variation. Annual Review of Anthropology, 41, 87–100.

[33] Emerson, R. M., Fretz, R. I., & Shaw, L. L. (2011). Writing ethnographic fieldnotes (2nd

[34] ed.). University of Chicago Press.

[35] Fishman, J. A. (1991). Reversing language shift: Theoretical and empirical foundations

[36] of assistance to threatened languages. Multilingual Matters.

[37] Flick, U. (2018). An introduction to qualitative research (6th ed.). Sage.

[38] Flores, N., & Rosa, J. (2020). Undoing appropriateness: Raciolinguistic ideologies and

[39] language teaching. Multilingual Matters.

[40] García, O., Flores, N., & Woodley, H. (2021). Translanguaging and education. Palgrave

[41] Macmillan.

[42] Garrett, P. (2005). What a language is good for: Language socialization, language shift

[43] and the persistence of code-specific norms. Language in Society, 34(3), 327–

[44] Grenoble, L. A. (2021). Language ecology and endangerment. Cambridge University

[45] Press.

[46] Grenoble, L. A., & Whaley, L. J. (2006). Saving languages: An introduction to language

[47] revitalization. Cambridge University Press.

[48] Hammersley, M., & Atkinson, P. (2019). Ethnography: Principles in practice (4th ed.).

[49] Routledge.

[50] Heller, M., & Duchêne, A. (2012). Pride and profit: Changing discourses of language,

[51] capital and nation-state. In A. Duchêne & M. Heller (Eds.), Language in late

[52] capitalism: Pride and profit (pp. 1–21). Routledge.

[53] Holm, J. (1989). Pidgins and creoles: Vol. II. Reference survey. Cambridge University

[54] Press.

[55] Holm, J. (2000). An introduction to pidgins and creoles. Cambridge University Press.

[56] Irvine, J. T., & Gal, S. (2000). Language ideology and linguistic differentiation. In P.

[57] Kroskrity (Ed.), Regimes of language: Ideologies, polities, and identities (pp. 35–

[58] . School of American Research Press.

[59] Johnson, S. (2018). Language and the economy: Dynamics of change in Oulu.

[60] Routledge.

[61] Kasstan, B. (2017). New speakers and language revitalization. Language

[62] Documentation and Conservation, 11, 151–179.

[63] Kasstan, B., Auer, A., & Salmons, J. (2018). Heritage speakers and sociolinguistic

[64] King, K. A. (2001). Language revitalization processes and prospects: Quichua in the

[65] Ecuadorian Andes. Multilingual Matters.

[66] Kircher, R., & Zipp, L. (2023). Language ideologies and multilingual realities. Cambridge

[67] University Press.

[68] Kroskrity, P. V. (2021). Language ideologies: Practice and theory. Oxford University

[69] Press.

[70] Kroskrity, P. V., & Field, M. C. (2022). Engaged humanities and minority language

[71] revitalization. University of Arizona Press.

[72] Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2015). Interviews: Learning the craft of qualitative research

[73] interviewing (3rd ed.). Sage.

[74] Lipski, J. M. (2005). A history of Afro-Hispanic language: Five centuries, five continents.

[75] Cambridge University Press.

[76] Meyerhoff, M., & Walker, J. A. (2013). Bequia talk: Creole variation and change in the

[77] Caribbean. Routledge.

[78] Migge, B. (2013). Language and social identities in the Caribbean. In B. Migge & I.

[79] Léglise (Eds.), Exploring language in a multilingual context (pp. 1–28).

[80] Cambridge University Press.

[81] Migge, B., & Léglise, I. (2013). Exploring language in a multilingual context: Variation,

[82] interaction and ideology in language documentation. Cambridge University

[83] Press.

[84] Milroy, J., & Milroy, L. (1992). Social network and social class: Toward an integrated

[85] sociolinguistic model. Language in Society, 21(1), 1–26.

[86] Milroy, L., & Gordon, M. (2003). Sociolinguistics: Method and interpretation. Blackwell.

[87] Mufwene, S. S. (2020). Language vitality: The role of economics and globalization.

[88] Routledge.

[89] Mufwene, S. S. (2001). The ecology of language evolution. Cambridge University Press.

[90] O’Rourke, B., Pujolar, J., & Ramallo, F. (2015). New speakers of minority languages:

[91] The challenging opportunity. Palgrave Macmillan.

[92] Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K.

[93] (2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed

[94] method implementation research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and

[95] Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 533–544.

[96] Patrick, P. L. (2007). The Jamaican Creole continuum and language rights. Language in

[97] Society, 36(1), 23–47.

[98] Putnam, L. (2017). Radical moves: Caribbean migrants and the politics of race in

[99] the jazz age. University of North Carolina Press.

[100] Rickford, J. R. (1999). African American vernacular English: Features, evolution,

[101] educational implications. Blackwell.

[102] Saldaña, J. (2021). The coding manual for qualitative researchers (4th ed.). Sage.

[103] Saville-Troike, M., & Blackwell, A. (2012). Introducing second language acquisition (2nd

[104] ed.). Cambridge University Press.

[105] Siegel, J. (2006). Language ideologies and the education of speakers of marginalized

[106] language varieties. Companion to Language and Linguistics.

[107] Sharma, D. (2011). Style repertoire and social change in British Asian English.

[108] Journal of Sociolinguistics, 15(4), 464–492.Sharma, D. (2021). Language

[109] and identity across generations. Routledge.

[110] Snell, J., Shaw, S., & Copland, F. (2015). Linguistic ethnography: Interdisciplinary

[111] explorations. Palgrave Macmillan.

[112] Wade, P. (2017). Race and ethnicity in Latin America (2nd ed.). Pluto Press.

[113] Wardhaugh, R., & Fuller, J. M. (2021). An introduction to sociolinguistics (8th ed.).

[114] Wiley-Blackwell.

[115] Winford, D. (2003). An introduction to contact linguistics. Wiley-Blackwell.

[116] Woolard, K. A. (1998). Introduction: Language ideology as a field of inquiry. In B. B.

[117] Schieffelin, K. A. Woolard, & P. V. Kroskrity (Eds.), Language ideologies:

[118] Practice and theory (pp. 3–47). Oxford University Press.

[119] Woolard, K. A., & Schieffelin, B. B. (1994). Language ideology. Annual Review of

[120] Anthropology, 23, 55–82.

[121] Youssef, V. (2002). Issues of bilingual education in the Caribbean: The cases of

[122] Haiti, and Trinidad and Tobago. International Journal of Bilingual Education and

[123] Bilingualism, 5(2), 182–193.

[124] Zentella, A. C. (1997). Growing up bilingual: Puerto Rican children in New York.

[125] Blackwell.

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